THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 

COLLEGE 

PRESENTED  BY 

William  E.  Roberts 


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EXAMPLES  OF 
INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 


BY 


FRANK  MITCHELL  LEAVITT 

ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR   OF    INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION    IN 
THE    UNIVERSITY    OF   CHICAGO 


One  example  is  worth  a  thousand  arguments. — Gladstone 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


r,» 


COPYRIGHT,  1912,  BY  FRANK   MITCHELL  LEAVITT 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 
512.6 


GINN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


/    (\  DNTVERSmr  OF  CALIFORNIA 

,      ^     ,  SANTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 

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PREFACE 

It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  we  are  in  the  midst  of  a  complex 
and  gigantic  movement,  somewhat  indefinite  and  indistinct  as 
to  its  direction  and  its  ultimate  results,  but  certainly  involving 
great  social  and  industrial  changes  and  promising  universal 
betterment.  The  forces  which  are  bringing  about  these  changes 
seem  to  be  dominated  by  the  desire  to  secure  for  the  less  pros- 
perous members  of  society  a  larger  measure  of  comfort  and 
happiness  and  a  more  abundant  life. 

There  is  probably  no  single  agency  which  has  had  so  many 
demands  made  upon  it  to  help  in  the  solution  of  the  problems 
which  this  great  movement  is  presenting  as  has  the  public 
school,  and  the  response  which  it  has  made  to  the  demands 
should  be  a  matter  of  pride  to  those  who  believe  in  the  great 
mission  of  this  most  important  of  democratic  institutions. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that,  in  the  securing  of  a  fair 
opportunity  for  all  to  attain  reasonable  happiness  ;  in  the  neces- 
sary reduction  of  poverty,  unemployment,  and  delinquency  ;  and 
in  the  promotion  of  individual  efficiency  and  social  solidarity, 
the  schools  have  only  a  fractional  part  of  the  responsibility.  To 
reach  the  results  for  which  the  promoters  of  industrial  education 
are  so  enthusiastically  working,  society  must  cooperate  in  secur- 
ing the  enactment  and  the  adequate  enforcement  of  wise  child- 
labor  and  school-attendance  laws,  and  the  improvement  of 
working  conditions  in  general. 

Though  this  volume  deals  with  only  a  fractional  part  of  the 
whole  problem,  the  author  believes  it  to  be  a  most  important 


iv  PREFACE 

part.  The  educators  of  the  country  wield  an  immense  influence, 
and  this  influence  will  be  increased  rather  than  diminished  when, 
by  dealing  successfully  with  a  practical  problem  closely  related 
to  the  lives  of  the  people,  they  convince  the  public  that  they 
are  not  dominated  alone  by  their  interest  in  scholarship  and  dis- 
interested truth  and  knowledge,  but  by  a  desire  to  advance  in 
every  way  possible  the  social  and  moral  welfare  of  every  child 
committed  to  their  care. 

It  is  hoped  that  by  bringing  together  the  accounts  of  several 
examples  of  public  industrial  schools  and  classes,  —  the  visible 
and  tangible  proofs  that  educators  are  applying  themselves  to  the 
solution  of  the  problems  to  which  we  have  alluded,  —  this  volume 
will  serve  to  stimulate  other  and  even  more  successful  efforts  to 
advance  the  movement  for  popular  and  universal  education. 

The  author  makes  no  apology  for  drawing  so  liberally  on  the 
utterances  of  others,  but  rather  takes  this  opportunity  of  acknowl- 
edging his  indebtedness  to  the  many  friends  who  have  allowed 
him  to  use  their  valuable  material.  Whatever  may  be  the  reader's 
attitude  toward  the  opinions  and  theories  expressed  by  the 
author,  he  is  urged  to  examine  this  material  with  care  and  to 
attempt  to  interpret  for  himself  the  several  examples  of  indus- 
trial education  which  it  describes. 

FRANK  MITCHELL    LEAVITT 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  MOVEMENT  FOR 
INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION i 

Industrial  education  a  subdivision  of  vocational  education.  Its  nature 
and  the  place  which  it  occupies  in  the  general  educational  plan.  The 
reality  of  the  problem.  Its  complexity.  Lack  of  harmony  between  social 
and  economic  conditions  and  the  ideals  of  the  public  schools. 

CHAPTER  11.  MANUAL  TRAINING  AND  INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION 9 

The  vocational  idea  in  education.  Early  history  of  the  manual-training 
movement  (1876-1894).  Its  original  coincidence  with  industrial  edu- 
cation. Its  gradual  abandonment  of  the  vocational  purpose.  Manual 
training  and  the  new  psychology.  Establishment  of  its  claim  to  a  cul- 
tural value.    The  renewed  demand  for  industrial  education. 

CHAPTER  III.  THE  DEMAND  — AN  ANALYSIS        .         .        19 

The  demand  of  the  manufacturers.  Changed  and  changing  industrial 
conditions.  The  present  industrial  position  of  the  United  States.  The 
need  of  a  new  form  of  apprenticeship.  Industrial  training  an  effective 
defense  against  the  encroachments  of  labor  unions. 

CHAPTER  IV.    THE  DEMAND  OF  ORGANIZED  LABOR       26 

Lack  of  unity  in  labor's  attitude.  An  official  statement  of  its  position. 
Its  fundamental  suspicion  and  some  reasons  for  it.  The  need  of  indus- 
trial education  from  labor's  standpoint.  Mistakes  made  by  organized 
labor  in  its  opposition  to  industrial  education.  Indication  of  better 
things  to  come.  Labor's  interest  in  general  as  contrasted  with  specialized 
education. 

CHAPTER  V.  THE  DEMAND  OF  EDUCATORS    .    .   37 

Implied  criticisms  of  the  public  schools.  The  educator's  ideal.  His  de- 
mand for  industrial  education  held  to  be  consistent  with  this  ideal.  His 
interest  awakened  by  the  elimination  of  pupils.  The  marked  hostility 
on  the  part  of  some  conservative  educators.  The  educator  indispensable 
in  the  solution  of  the  problem. 


vi  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  VI.    THE  DEMAND  OF  SOCIAL  WORKERS  .       44 
Their  fundamental  purpose.    Their  study  of  conditions.    Their  dis- 
covery of  the  need  for  industrial  education.   Opinions  of  prison  and  re- 
form-school officials.    Schools  established  by  philanthropy.    The  social 
factor  in  industrial  education. 

CHAPTER  VII.  THE  REVISION  OF  EDUCATIONAL 
IDEALS  INVOLVED  IN  THE  MOVEMENT  FOR  IN- 
DUSTRIAL  TRAINING .52 

The  present  movement  with  past  history  of  educational  advance.  More 
careful  adjustment  to  individual  needs.  These  revealed  by  elimination 
of  pupils  from  school.  The  importance  of  the  elementary  school.  More 
flexible  system  needed.  Earlier  differentiation  of  purpose.  Seeking 
cultural  value  in  work.  Advisory  committees.  New  requirements  for 
teachers.  Necessary  experimentation.  Cooperation  of  parents,  teachers, 
and  employers. 

CHAPTER  VIII.  A  PLAN  FOR  IMMEDIATE  REORGAN- 
IZATION      63 

Reduction  of  retardation.  Chart  showing  various  types  of  vocational 
schools.  Similar  subdivision  needed  in  limited  industrial  education 
as  is  found  in  extensive  liberal  and  professional  education.  Other  fea- 
tures of  the  plan.  The  possibility  of  early  choice  between  various  types 
of  schools.   A  preliminary  investigation. 

CHAPTER  IX.    EXAMPLES   OF   MORE  FUNDAMENTAL 
REORGANIZATION  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .75 

Dissatisfaction  with  present  systems  of  grading  and  promotions.  Re- 
tardation. Special  classes.  Traditional  plan  of  promotion.  Some  de- 
partures from  this  rigid  system.  Cambridge.  St.  Louis.  The  reorganized 
school  system  of  Portland,  Oregon.  Menomonie,  Wisconsin.  Cleve- 
land's new  quarterly  plan.  Chicago's  review  schools.  Elementary,  lower 
high,  and  upper  high  schools  of  Berkeley,  California.  The  three-group 
system  of  Concord,  New  Hampshire.  The  Gary,  Indiana,  school  system. 

CHAPTER  X.  PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8  95 
The  double  purpose  of  prevocational  work.  Boston's  early  experiment. 
Effect  on  prolonging  school  life  of  pupils.  The  Cleveland  Elementary 
Industrial  School.  The  selection  of  pupils.  The  plan  of  organization 
and  courses  of  study.  The  results.  Outline  of  other  experiments  of  this 
type  —  Indianapolis,  Newark,  St.  Paul,  Springfield  (Illinois),  Evanston, 
Fitchburg,  Los  Angeles,  and  Seattle.  Summary  of  characteristics  of 
prevocational  work. 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

CHAPTER    XI.     THE    INTERMEDIATE    OR    SEPARATE 

INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL 129 

Its  position  defined.  The  Rochester  Shop  School:  its  history  and  organ- 
ization ;  cabinetmaking  department;  electrical  department;  plumbing 
department ;  carpentry  department ;  cost  of  the  school  and  receipts 
from  the  "product  system."  Newton  Independent  Industrial  School; 
organization,  course  of  study,  and  product ;  certificates  and  diplomas. 
The  Manhattan  Trade  School.  The  Secondary  Industrial  School  of 
Columbus,  Georgia.    Other  schools  of  this  type. 

CHAPTER  XII.  VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  .  .154 
Place  and  variety  of  vocational  high  schools.  The  Albert  G.  Lane  Tech- 
nical High  School,  Chicago  :  under  conservative  conditions  has  achieved 
success  as  a  progressive  and  "  vocational "  school ;  its  physical  equip- 
ment ;  the  two-year  course  in  electricity,  with  notes ;  efficiency  test  of 
pattern-making  class.    Value  of  real  work. 

CHAPTER  XIII.  THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  .  .  .  .175 
The  trade  school  a  finishing  school.  Its  singleness  of  purpose.  Mil- 
waukee's public  trade  schools :  courses  for  pattern  makers,  machinists 
and  toolmakers,  plumbers,  dressmakers,  and  milliners.  Trade-training 
problems  different  for  the  boy  and  the  girl.  David  Ranken,  Jr.,  School  of 
Mechanical  Trades :  an  endowed  school ;  purpose  as  shown  in  founda- 
tion deed ;  courses  in  carpentry,  pattern  making,  bricklaying,  plumbing, 
painting,  and  steam  engineering.  Worcester  Trade  School :  emphasis 
placed  on  a  commercial  product ;  the  possibility  of  securing  it  for 
pupils  in  carpentry,  pattern  making,  cabinetmaking,  and  machine  work. 

CHAPTER  XIV.    PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS      201 

First  organized  in  the  United  vStates  at  the  University  of  Cincinnati. 
The  plan  applied  to  high  schools  and  to  a  separate  industrial  school. 
Fitchburg  plan  and  course  of  study  for  machine-shop  industries.  The 
Beverly  Industrial  School :  agreement  between  city  of  Beverly  and  the 
United  Shoe  Machinery  Company;  the  machinist  instructors  and  the 
high-school  staff.   Summary  of  important  features  of  the  part-time  plan. 

CHAPTER  XV.  THE  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL  .  .  223 
Continuation  schools  dependent  on  the  cooperation  of  employers  and 
the  school  authorities :  a  strong  leading  spirit  essential  to  their  success. 
Cincinnati's  experience  :  the  night  school ;  the  young  apprentice  needs 
daytime  instruction  ;  day  continuation  school  for  machine-shop  appren- 
tices ;  the  course  of  study,  enrollment,  and  cost ;  compulsory  attendance 
under  sixteen  years  of  age.  Cleveland's  continuation  schools.  Boston's 
day  continuation  classes  in  dry  goods,  salesmanship,  shoe  and  leather, 
banking,  and  household  arts. 


viii         EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

PAOE 

CHAPTER  XVI.  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  .  .  .235 
Initial  steps  taken  at  JJoston.  The  IJoston  plan  described  by  former 
Superintendent  Hrooks  :  vocational  placement  distinguished  from  voca- 
tional guidance  ;  the  revision  of  educational  methods  ;  earlier  choice  of 
vocation  becomes  desirable ;  conflict  between  specialized  and  cultural 
motives ;  industrial  education  a  supplement  to,  not  a  substitute  for, 
general  education ;  the  Vocation  IJureau  and  the  school  committee ; 
other  agencies ;  vocational  counselors  and  vocational  assistants ;  guid- 
ance within  the  school  system ;  placement  and  subsequent  encourage- 
ment ;  the  school's  duty.  The  Grand  Rapids  plan  :  study  of  conditions ; 
guidance  in  the  high  school ;  record  charts ;  school  counselors ;  liter- 
ature and  vocational  guidance ;  the  plan  in  detail  and  the  cooperation 
of  the  Grand  Kapids  Public  Library.    New  York  City  and  Cincinnati. 

CHAPTER  XVII.  STATE  LEGISLATION  .  .  .  .267 
Theoretically  an  expression  of  public  opinion.  Examination  of  laws 
relating  directly  to  industrial  education  in  public  schools.  Connecticut. 
Indiana.  Kansas.  Maine.  Summary  of  Massachusetts  legislation  prior 
to  191 1  :  revised  laws ;  definitions,  state  administration  and  supervision, 
types  of  schools,  local  administration  and  control.  Michigan.  New 
Jersey.  New  York:  extract  from  Education  I^aw,  1910;  what  schools 
may  be  established  ;  advisory  boards  ;  authority  of  local  boards  of  educa- 
tion and  of  the  state  commissioner  of  education.  Ohio.  Oklahoma. 
Oregon.  Pennsylvania.  Wisconsin :  the  most  complete  state  law  re- 
lating to  education,  school  attendance,  child  labor,  and  apprenticeship. 
Combined  agriculture,  manual  training,  and  home  economics  in  states 
where  agriculture,  rather  than  manufacture,  is  the  most  important  interest : 
Minnesota ;  North  Dakota ;  Vermont. 

CHAPTER  XVIII.  CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDU- 
CATION  299 

Education  for  the  Iowa  Farm  Koy,  a  paper  by  II.  C.  Wallace.  The  new 
conditions  confronting  the  farmer.  The  resultant  interest  in  agriculture 
shown  by  the  whole  people.  The  necessity  for  systematic  and  scientific 
training.  The  German  educational  system  and  the  German  teachers. 
The  French  system.  The  English  system.  The  American  system :  its 
gradual  evolution ;  tardy  recognition  of  the  educational  needs  of  the 
farmer ;  the  wall  around  the  agricultural  college.  Agricultural  teaching 
in  foreign  countries.  Secondary  agricultural  education  in  the  United 
States ;  the  conditions  in  Iowa.  Need  of  training  in  reach  of  the  aver- 
age boy  on  the  farm.    Some  suggestions. 

INDEX .  .327 


EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I 

SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE  MOVEMENT  FOR 
INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

The  movement  for  industrial  education  is  a  part  of  a  great 
educational  advance  which  extends  over  the  whole  civilized 
world.  It  results  from  the  attempt  to  bring  about  universal  and 
appropriate  education.  It  frankly  recognizes  that  all  cannot  have 
and  do  not  need  the  same  education.  It  takes  cognizance  of  the 
enormous  increase  in  the  sum  total  of  human  knowledge  and 
art  which  the  last  century  has  brought,  and  the  ever-increasing 
gap  which  separates  this  sum  total  from  the  capacity  of  the 
most  receptive  and  most  assiduous  student.  It  is  strongly  in- 
fluenced by  the  principle  that,  in  making  the  selection  of  the 
knowledge  and  art  which  any  individual  or  group  of  individuals 
should  acquire,  the  vocational  purpose  should  be  second  only  to 
the  moral  and  social  purposes,  with  which,  in  fact,  it  is  rarely 
in  opposition.  Thus  vocational  education  is  the  larger  term  and 
includes  professional,  commercial,  and  agricultural  education, 
education  in  domestic  arts  and  sciences,  and  industrial  educa- 
tion. It  is  to  the  consideration  of  this  latter  phase  of  modern 
educational  advance  that  our  discussions  are  to  be  specifically 
directed. 

Industrial  education  means  the  complete  and  appropriate  edu- 
cation of  industrial  workers  of  whatever  grade.  It  therefore 
means  much  more  than  the  introduction  of  shopwork  into  the 


2  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

present  curriculum, — the  addition  of  another  subject,  however 
important  that  subject  may  be.  It  means  a  thorough  revision 
of  our  school  system  with  the  purpose  of  furnishing  for  the 
working  classes  an  education  which  bears  somewhat  the  same 
relation  to  their  prospective  life  work  as  does  the  college  edu- 
cation to  the  future  work  of  the  professional  and  managerial 
classes.  It  means  that,  at  whatever  grade  it  may  be  introduced, 
it  will  be  a  type  of  secondary  education,  and  will  presuppose  a 
basis  of  general  cultural  training  and  provide  for  considerable 
variety  in  both  the  length  and  the  breadth  of  the  special  super- 
structure. It  means  reality.  The  word  "reality"  is  used  here  in 
contradistinction  to  artificiality.  Industrial  education,  therefore, 
provides  participation  in,  rather  than  fancied  preparation  for, 
some  activity.  It  means  practice  in  real  work  for  real  people 
as  an  effective  medium  of  education.  It  means,  in  the  final 
analysis,  the  fitting  of  a  particular  boy  for  a  particular  job,  and 
it  is  therefore  strongly  individualistic. 

For  the  student  of  education  it  means  the  study  of  real  con- 
ditions, —  not  alone  the  conditions  of  children  in  the  schools, 
but  also,  and  perhaps  primarily,  the  conditions  of  children  who, 
in  the  past,  have  benefited  the  least  from  formal  education.  He 
must  be  interested  to  study  the  children  who  lag  as  well  as  those 
who  progress,  those  who  can  spend  little  as  well  as  those  who 
can  spend  much  time  in  school  training,  those  aiming  toward 
the  market,  the  shop,  or  the  farm  as  well  as  those  preparing 
for  college.  He  must  inquire  at  what  ages  children  leave  school 
and  for  what  reasons  ;  what  they  do  after  leaving,  and  with  what 
profit  or  success.  He  must  make  a  study  of  industrial  methods 
and  developments,  and  of  the  industrial  and  social  opportunities 
open  to  the  rising  generation. 

He  should  endeavor  to  make  careful  and  specific  adjustment 
of  educational  principles  and  practices  to  these  conditions,  and 
to  work  out  in  detail  courses  of  study  suitable  for  typical  cases. 


MOVEMENT  FOR  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  3 

While  industrial  education  is  specific  rather  than  general,  it 
is  desirable  to  examine  some  general  principles  in  order  to 
establish  a  basis  for  comparison  and  standards  of  measurement. 

The  problem  which  confronts  us  is  a  social  problem.  It  in- 
volves the  study  of  the  evolution  of  industry,  — a  knowledge  of  the 
varying  conditions  under  which  people  have  lived  and  worked, 
and  especially  their  chances  for  safety,  comfort,  and  progress. 
This  will  lead  the  student  of  education  to  the  consideration  of 
the  present  status  of  the  industrial  worker,  of  industrial  systems, 
and  of  organizations  of  capital  and  labor.  It  will  show  him  that 
the  movement  for  industrial  education  is  itself  evolving,  and 
that  therefore  we  should  not  seek  finality  but  rather  should 
try  to  discover  the  nature  of  the  present  need,  the  kind  of 
training  required  to  meet  it,  and  the  agencies  which  can  best 
furnish  this  training. 

In  the  restricted  meaning  of  the  word  "  education  "  this  is 
also  an  educational  problem,  that  is  to  say,  a  problem  for  the 
schools.  It  is  therefore  important  to  determine  to  what  extent 
it  is  a  problem  of  general  education  and  to  what  extent  a  problem 
of  special  education.  In  other  words,  it  should  be  decided  to 
what  extent  it  may  be  afforded  by  our  existing  types  of  schools, 
and  to  what  extent  special  institutions  must  be  provided.  It 
will  thus  involve  at  least  a  superficial  study  of  the  history  of 
American  education  in  order  that  the  trend  of  the  people's 
schools  may  be  seen  and  appreciated. 

At  the  outset  the  real  problem  which  the  mere  name  of  our 
subject  indicates  should  be  frankly  admitted. 

Industry  is  concerned  primarily  with  material  production. 

Education  is  concerned  primarily  with  the  unfolding  of 
human  powers. 

The  mainspring  of  industrial  development  has  been  the 
desire  to  produce  more  and  better  goods  at  a  decreased  cost. 
While  this  effort  has  resulted  in  commendable  expenditure  of 


4  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

energy,  ingenious  invention,  and  the  beneficial  economy  of 
marvelous  organization,  frequently  it  has  led  to  systematic  ex- 
ploitation, —  the  exploitation  of  our  soil,  our  forests,  our  mines, 
our  rivers,  and,  lastly,  our  children. 

With  all  the  errors  which  organized  education  has  ever  made, 
its  ideal  has  been  the  unfolding  and  perfecting  of  all  that  is 
best  and  highest  in  human  nature.  Its  mainspring  has  been 
the  belief  that  the  conservation  of  the  child's  best  powers  and 
resources  was  to  be  attained  by  submission  to  a  constantly  in- 
creasing period  of  school  attendance. 

So  industry,  at  its  worst,  stands  for  exploitation,  while  edu- 
cation, at  its  best,  means  conservation.  Thus  there  is  here  a 
genuine  problem,  according  to  Dr.  Dewey,  who  says  that  '"  a 
problem  is  genuine  just  because  the  elements,  taken  as  they 
stand,  are  conflicting." 

It  is  fundamentally  important  to  discover  where  these  two  are 
consistent  and  where  antagonistic,  and  when  this  is  done  the 
duty  of  the  educator  will  be  quite  clear.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
his  ideal,  as  stated  above,  will  need  no  modification,  but  his 
judgment  regarding  educational  values  and  his  ideas  regarding 
educational  methods  will  doubtless  undergo  some  modification. 

In  addition  to  recognizing  the  genuine  conflict  between  the 
primary  incentive  of  industry  and  the  final  end  of  education,  it 
is  also  essential  that  the  extreme  complication  of  the  problem 
be  constantly  kept  in  mind.  It  is  obviously  impossible  to  attack 
the  problem  from  all  sides  at  once,  yet  conclusions  regarding 
any  one  phase  of  the  question  may  be  subject  to  modification 
when  examined  from  another  viewpoint.  The  complexity  will 
be  apparent  if  one  reflects  on  the  following  questions,  which  indi- 
cate points  of  view  from  which  the  subject  might  be  approached. 

Can  the  principle  of  the  elimination  of  waste,  which  has  been 
so  productive  of  advance  in  the  industrial  world,  be  applied  with 
equally  good  results  to  educational  activities  ? 


MOVEMENT  FOR  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  5 

What  interests  have  capital  and  labor  in  the  movement  for 
industrial  education  ?  To  what  extent  are  they  identical,  and 
in  what  respects  are  they  antagonistic  ? 

What  has  been  the  traditional  attitude  of  wealth  toward  pop- 
ular education  ? 

Have  we  classes  in  American  society?  Admitting  the  pos- 
sibility afforded  the  individual  of  passing  from  one  class  to 
another,  what  are  the  probabilities  that  any  considerable  propor- 
tion of  wage  earners  can  ever  change  their  status  to  that  of 
employers  ? 

What  relation,  if  any,  exists  between  industrial  progress  and 
the  evolution  of  the  school  system  ? 

What  part  have  the  schools  taken  in  the  application  of  art 
and  science  to  modern  industry  ? 

To  what  extent  is  our  present  division  of  elementary  and 
secondary  education  fortuitous,  and  to  what  extent  the  result  of 
purposeful  planning  ? 

What  is  demanded  of  education  in  a  democracy  ? 

What  educational  practices  of  to-day  most  clearly  indicate  the 
trend  of  popular  education  ? 

Are  the  present  standards  of  the  schools  in  keeping  with 
existing  social  and  industrial  conditions  ? 

If  these  and  similar  questions  were  pondered  by  all  educators, 
there  would  be  such  a  revision  of  educational  ideals  and  methods 
as  the  country  has  never  yet  witnessed.  In  fact,  the  present 
movement  for  vocational  education  is  the  best  indication  that 
these  questions  are  now  engaging  the  serious  consideration  of 
the  thinking  educational  world. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  volume  to  discuss  specifically 
each  of  the  questions  suggested  above.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  one  who  finds  his  major  interest  in  any  one  of  these  ques- 
tions will  discover  in  the  following  pages  something  vitally 
related  to  it. 


6  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

It  is  from  a  study  of  such  questions  that  one  becomes  con- 
vinced that  radical  educational  reform  is  imminent  and  inevitable. 
It  is  evident  that  our  present  school  systems  are  out  of  harmony 
with  social  and  industrial  organization. 

Some  of  the  more  pertinent  facts  relating  to  the  social  organ- 
ization may  well  be  briefly  considered.  First  of  all  will  be  found 
the  wage  system  itself.  As  we  know,  the  system  places  upon 
the  individual  the  responsibility  for  his  own  and  for  his  family's 
support.  It  is  individualistic,  not  socialistic.  It  works  well  for 
the  fortunate,  but  for  many  unfortunate  it  has  worked  such  evil 
that  it  is  frequently  referred  to  as  "  wage  slavery."  At  all  events, 
it  has  produced  two  distinct  classes  with  interests  apparently 
widely  divergent,  if  not  diametrically  opposed, —  the  employers 
and  the  employed.  We  find  also  that  it  has  led  to  an  exceed- 
ingly unequal  distribution  not  only  of  wealth  but  also  of  oppor- 
tunity for  securing  personal  happiness,  comfort,  and  satisfaction 
in  the  fundamental  experiences  of  life. 

Dr.  Lyman  Abbott,  in  an  article  in  The  Outlook  of  August  6, 
19 lo,  says:  ""In  the  second  place,  this  wage  system  inevitably 
creates  a  concentration  of  wealth.  It  creates  a  small  class  of 
more  or  less,  and  generally  increasingly,  wealthy  men,  and  a 
large  class  of  more  or  less  dependent  men.  The  startling  facts 
are  thus  given  in  Charles  B.  Spahr's  book  on  '  The  Present 
Distribution  of  Wealth,'  the  best  book,  I  think,  on  the  subject 
in  the  English  language :  "  To  sum  up  the  whole  situation, 
therefore,  it  appears  that  the  general  distribution  of  incomes  in 
the  United  States  is  wider  and  better  than  in  most  of  the  coun- 
tries of  western  Europe.  Despite  this  fact,  however,  one  eighth 
of  the  families  in  America  receive  more  than  half  of  the  aggre- 
gate income,  and  the  richest  one  per  cent  receives  a  larger  income 
than  the  poorest  fifty  per  cent.  In  fact  this  small  class  of  wealthy 
property  owners  receives  from  property  alone  as  large  an  income 
as  half  our  people  receive  from  property  and  labor.'  " 


MOVEMENT  FOR  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  7 

Another  series  of  pertinent  facts  are  those  relating  to  the 
minute  subdivision  of  labor  which  is  characteristic  of  mod- 
ern manufacture.  These  are  set  forth  with  great  clearness  in 
Btillethi  No.  8  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Industrial  Education.  The  following  quotation  from  page  2 1  is 
illustrative  : 

"  Let  us  compare  some  interesting  figures  relative  to  the 
saving  in  time  and  labor  in  shoes  made  by  machines  over  those 
made  by  hand.  Comparison  is  made  in  number  of  workmen 
employed,  operations  performed,  hours  of  labor  and  cost  of  labor, 
in  manufacturing  100  pairs  of  men's  medium-grade  calf,  welt, 
lace  shoes,  single  soles  and  soft  box  toes,  in  1863  and  in  1895, 
In  1863  manufacturing  these  100  pairs  by  hand  necessitated  73 
operations  by  one  workman,  with  approximately  1 8  3 1  hours  of 
work,  at  a  labor  cost  of  about  $458.  To  make  the  same  number 
of  shoes  of  similar  grade  in  1895  by  machine,  there  were  173 
operations,  371  workmen,  the  time  being  approximately  234 
hours,  and  the  cost  of  labor  $60.  In  manufacturing  cheaper 
shoes  the  saving  in  time  and  labor  in  the  machine  product  is 
even  more  striking." 

From  the  foregoing  it  becomes  evident  that  the  determining 
factor  in  industrial  control  is  the  ownership  of  the  tools  or 
machines,  and  that,  as  this  ownership  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
comparatively  few,  the  status  of  the  mass  of  the  wage  earners 
is  relatively  permanent. 

If,  with  these  social  and  economic  conditions  in  mind,  we 
examine  our  public-school  systems,  we  are  led  to  conclude  that 
the  ideals  and  machinery  of  a  "  leisure-class  "  education  still 
persist  to  a  very  considerable  degree.  Particularly  convincing 
are  those  facts  relating  to  the  retardation  of  pupils  in  the  public 
schools,  and  the  final  elimination  of  a  very  considerable  propor- 
tion of  them  without  any  adequate  education  whatsoever.  A 
publication  of  the  Charities  Publication  Committee,  New  York, 


8  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

entitled  '"  laggards  in  our  Schools,"  by  Leonard  P.  Ayres, 
contains  an  enlightening  exposition  of  this  subject.  It  shows 
the  difficulty  of  making  any  unqualified  statement  regarding 
retardation  and  elimination,  but  it  forces  the  conviction  that 
our  present  methods  are  failing  with  half  of  the  children  con- 
fided to  the  care  of  the  public  schools. 

It  is  therefore  to  the  problem  of  providing  an  adequate  and 
appropriate  education  for  the  industrial  workers  that  the  follow- 
ing chapters  are  specifically  addressed. 

Other  studies  relating  to  the  subsequent  vocational  experi- 
ences of  these  "  laggards "  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
schools  have  not  only  failed  to  awaken  in  large  numbers  of 
their  pupils  an  interest  in  study  but  have  engendered  a  distaste 
for  work  of  any  kind,  particularly  for  manual  work.  These 
young  people  seem  to  have  received  no  training  in  the  schools 
which  helps  them  to  cope  with  the  peculiar  difficulties  of  their 
social  and  economic  environment,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  appears 
that  the  attempts  to  "educate"  them  have  actually  contributed 
to  their  failure  in  the  industrial  world. 


CHAPTER   II 

MANUAL  TRAINING  AND  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

From  the  foregoing  chapter  it  will  readily  appear  that  the  move- 
ment for  industrial  education  is  so  vast,  and  its  ramifications  so 
numerous,  that  confusion  and  misunderstandings  are  inevitable. 

"One  factor  which  has  contributed  to  this  confusion  has  been 
the  indiscriminate  use  of  the  two  terms  "  manual  training  "  and 
"industrial  training."  A  very  considerable  number  of  school 
men  to-day  employ  these  terms  as  if  they  were  synonymous. 

Recent  attempts  have  been  made,  notably  by  the  Committee 
of  Ten  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial 
Education,  to  formulate  such  definitions  as  would  serve  to  com- 
pletely differentiate  the  terms,  but  the  results  have  not  been 
wholly  successful.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to  fix  definite  limita- 
tions, but  rather  to  sketch  the  development  of  the  general 
movement  which  includes  both  manual  training  and  industrial 
education.  It  should  be  possible  to- determine  in  which  portion 
of  the  educational  field  each  is  most  effective,  and  which  por- 
tions they  occupy  in  common. 

At  the  very  inception  of  the  manual-training  movement  will 
be  found  the  vocational  idea.  Speaking  quite  generally,  this  is 
also  true  of  all  types  of  American  schools.  Our  existing  high  or 
secondary  schools,  so-called,  were  originally  established  with  a 
vocational  purpose  clearly  stated  or  implied.  P'or  example,  let 
us  note  the  development  of  the  high  schools  in  Boston,  since  the 
oldest  free  public  school  in  the  United  States,  and  one  in  which 
traditional  education  holds  full  sway,  is  included  in  that  system. 
The  Boston  Latin  School  was,  and  is,  a  vocational  school,  more 

9 


lO         EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

truly  vocational  than  many  of  the  manual-training  and  industrial 
schools  throughout  the  country.  It  was  founded  as  a  preparatory 
school  for  Harvard  College,  which,  in  its  turn,  was  established 
to  train  men  for  the  ministry,  in  order  that  the  colony  might  not 
have  an  illiterate  clergy.  Naturally  many  changes  in  the  public- 
school  system  have  come  about  since  the  establishment  of  this 
school  (April,  1635),  and  it  should  be  noted  that  these  changes 
have  been  demanded  by  the  public,  and  usually  have  been  en- 
forced by  legislative  enactment.  To  the  Latin  School  there  have 
been  added  the  English  High  School,  originally  planned  to  fit 
for  nonprofessional  life ;  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  origi- 
nally planned  to  fit  for  the  industries ;  the  Commercial  High 
School  for  Boys;  and  the  Practical  Arts  High  School  for  Girls, 
whose  names  clearly  reflect  their  purposes. 

Returning  specifically  to  the  introduction  of  manual  training, 
it  is  important  to  note  that  not  only  was  the  vocational  idea 
prominent  in  the  establishment  of  the  Mechanic  Arts  High 
School  in  Boston,  but  that  the  same  was  true  of  the  manual- 
training  high  schools  in  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  Toledo,  Cleveland, 
and  Philadelphia,  which  preceded  it. 

The  immediate  impulse  for  this  movement  may  possibly  have 
been  found  in  the  Philadelphia  Exposition  in  1876.  Here  was 
shown  the  laboratory  method  applied  to  the  teaching  of  the 
mechanic  arts,  as  employed  in  the  Imperial  Technical  School  at 
Moscow,  Russia.  Two  of  the  pioneers  of  manual  training  in 
this  country.  Professor  John  D.  Runkel,  at  that  time  president 
of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  and  Professor 
Calvin  M.  Woodward,  of  the  Engineering  Department  of  the 
Washington  University  at  St.  Louis,  saw  this  exhibit  and  made 
such  recommendations  as  resulted  in  definite  action  by  these  two 
institutions.  The  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  estab- 
lished on  August  17,  1876,  a  department  known  as  the  School 
of  Mechanic  Arts.  This  was  opened  to  boys  of  high-school  age, 


MANUAL  TRAINING  II 

and  was  continued  for  several  years,  finally  being  abandoned 
when  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School  was  about  to  be  estab- 
lished by  the  school  board  as  a  part  of  the  public-school  system 
of  the  city  of  Boston. 

The  Manual  Training  School  at  St.  Louis  was  established  on 
June  6,  1879.  From  the  first  it  has  received  boys  of  high-school 
age,  preparing  its  pupils  not  only  for  higher  technical  schools 
but  also  for  commercial  and  industrial  pursuits. 

In  January,  1884,  the  Commercial  Club  of  Chicago  established 
and  endowed  the  Chicago  Manual  Training  School.  In  1884 
courses  in  manual  training  were  organized  for  the  high-school 
pupils  of  Cleveland.  This  was  done  under  private  initiative,  and 
the  work  was  continued  until  1892,  when  the  city  established 
manual  training  as  a  part  of  the  free  public-school  system.  In 
the  same  year  Toledo  established  courses  of  manual  training  to 
be  given  in  connection  with  the  public  high  school,  using  for 
this  purpose  a  certain  trust  fund.  In  this  year,  also,  Baltimore 
established  a  similar  school. 

By  1893  manual  training  had  been  introduced  into  the  high- 
school  curricula,  instruction  being  given  either  in  separate  schools 
or  in  the  existing  schools,  in  many  cities,  notably,  in  addition 
to  those  already  mentioned,  Cambridge,  Fall  River,  Springfield 
(Massachusetts),  Boston,  New  Orleans,  Wilmington,  Providence, 
New  York,  Albany,  Omaha,  Carson  City,  Washington,  Chicago, 
Indianapolis,  St.  Paul,  and  Minneapolis. 

Not  only  was  manual  training  established  in  high  schools,  but 
efforts  were  made  very  early  to  secure  its  introduction  into  the 
elementary  schools.  One  of  the  most  far-reaching  influences  of 
the  Swedish  sloyd  system  is  to  be  found  in  the  insistence  of  its 
early  advocates  that  handwork  was  an  essential  in  the  educa- 
tion of  young  children. 

Here,  too,  private  munificence  and  enterprise  were  important 
factors.   As  early  as  1882  classes  were  established  in  the  public 


12  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

schools  of  Boston,  supported  by  the  generosity  of  Mrs.  Quincy 
A.  Shaw,  and  a  Manual  Training  Committee  was  appointed  by 
the  school  board  in  1884.  Within  ten  years  manual  training, 
in  the  form  of  woodworking,  had  been  introduced  into  the  ele- 
mentary schools  of  many  cities.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned 
Washington,  New  Haven,  St.  Paul,  Montclair,  New  York, 
Jamestown,  Cleveland,  Boston,  Brookline,  Springfield  (Massa- 
chusetts), Chicago,  Waltham,  and  Salem. 

Whether  in  elementary  or  in  high  school,  the  work  proposed 
by  the  earliest  advocates  of  manual  training  was  urged  because 
of  its  vocational  significance.  In  the  report  of  a  public-school 
board  in  1878,  occurs  the  following: 

"  The  question  of  teaching  trades  in  our  schools  is  one  of 
vital  importance.  If  New  England  would  maintain  her  place 
as  the  great  industrial  center  of  the  country,  she  must  become 
to  the  United  States  what  France  is  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  the 
first  in  taste,  the  first  in  design,  the  first  in  skilled  workman- 
ship. She  must  accustom  her  children  from  early  youth  to  the 
use  of  tools,  and  give  them  a  thorough  training  in  the  mechanic 
arts." 

The  interest  awakened  by  the  novelty  of  this  new  type  of 
school  work  soon  divided  the  opinions  of  school  men.  Probably 
the  majority  were  indifferent ;  some  assumed  the  attitude  of 
active  advocates,  and  others  that  of  vigorous  opposition. 

Those  who  opposed  the  introduction  of  manual  training  took 
the  ground  that  the  purpose  of  public  instruction  was  to  develop 
general  culture  rather  than  to  provide  for  vocational  eflficiency. 
The  school  was  to  develop  character  and  general  intelligence. 

The  advocates  of  the  new  education  were  thereby  led  to 
emphasize  what  they  conceived  to  be  the  cultural  value  of  con- 
structive work.  It  was  said  that  "'  the  entire  history  of  man,  if 
examined  carefully,  finally  reveals  itself  in  the  history  of  the 
invention  of  better  tools."    It  was  pointed  out  that  man  was 


MANUAL  TRAINING  1 3 

distinguished  from  all  other  creatures  by  his  ability  to  use  tools, 
and  that  the  stages  in  his  development  had  been  marked  by  the 
increasing  degree  of  excellence  to  which  these  tools  had  been 
brought.  It  was  seen  that  tool  work  afforded  relaxation  from  the 
tedium  of  purely  intellectual  book  work,  and  also  offered  oppor- 
tunity for  another  form  of  expression  and  thereby  supplied 
serious  defects  in  the  education  of  that  day. 

Following  the  example  of  its  prominent  advocates,  the  teachers 
of  manual  training  very  early  began  to  deny  that  the  practical 
value  of  the  work  was  paramount,  and  to  insist  that  their  function, 
like  that  of  the  teaehers  of  Greek  and  Latin,  was  to  develop  the 
character  of  the  pupil,  not  to  increase  his  potential  economic 
value.  They  said,  '"  We  are  not  teaching  a  trade,  we  are  educat- 
ing children  ;  not  teaching  them  to  earn  a  living,  but  teaching 
them  to  live." 

Another  circumstance  which  contributed  to  the  formulizing 
of  manual  training  was  the  advent  of  educational  psychology. 
Students  of  manual  training  and  of  psychology  felt  that  the 
subjects  were  vitally  related.  Attention  was  diverted  from  the 
obvious,  practical  benefits  of  handwork  to  the  subtler  and  more 
far-reaching  results  which,  they  said,  could  be  fully  revealed  only 
by  reference  to  physiological  psychology.  The  interrelation  of 
the  mind  and  hand,  the  coordination  of  the  intellectual  and 
physical,  formed  the  basis  of  many  public  discourses  and  the 
more  or  less  clearly  defined  groundwork  for  courses  of  study. 

The  result  of  this  discussion  was  to  establish  the  claim  that 
manual  training  had  a  distinct  cultural  value,  and  it  is  probable 
that  it  was  because  of  the  general  acceptance  of  this  proposition 
by  educators  that  the  new  form  of  educational  activity  was  so 
speedily  and  generally  established. 

The  acceptance  of  the  theory  of  the  educational  value  of 
manual  training  did  not,  of  course,  insure  its  immediate  or  ade- 
quate introduction  into  the  school  system.   Conservatism  of  those 


14  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

in  authority,  the  lack  of  accurate  information,  the  impossibility 
of  securing  a  sufficient  number  of  competent  teachers,  and  the 
very  considerable  expense  of  equipment  and  maintenance,  —  all 
contributed  to  keep  accomplishment  far  behind  accepted  prin- 
ciple. Nevertheless,  many  schools  and  classes  were  established 
and  few  have  ever  been  discontinued.  In  some  school  systems 
a  pupil  may  now  receive  manual  training  from  the  kindergarten 
through  the  high  school.  Much  intelligent  thought  has  been 
expended  on  determining  the  content  of  courses  of  study  and 
the  disciplinary  value  of  methods  of  instruction.  On  the  whole 
there  appears  to  be  much  justification  in  facts  for  such  state- 
ments and  definitions  as  are  found  in  the  following  quotations : 

"  To  cultivate  the  hand  and  eye  is  to  enlarge  the  material  for 
thought  and  the  food  for  thought." 

"'  Manual  training  gives  the  individual  more  complete  com- 
mand of  himself  and  a  keen  sense  of  physical  realities,  more 
practical  control  of  "  things  "  and  physical  processes,  a  sense  of 
the  social  significance  of  industries,  more  social  intelligence  and 
social  enthusiasm,  and  the  capacity  to  sense  accurately,  to  think 
truly,  and  to  judge  logically." 

"  Manual  training  is  needful  for  every  individual  irrespective 
of  his  calling  or  professional  career.  The  boy  in  the  grades  or 
in  high  school  is  sent  to  the  school  shop,  not  because  he  is  to 
be  a  carpenter ;  he  is  sent  there,  though  it  be  already  clear  that 
he  is  to  be  an  attorney  or  a  physician  or  a  clergyman." 

"  Clear  reason,  self-control,  stability,  equilibrium  of  character, 
strong  will,  and  wise  accommodation  of  the  thing  wished  for 
to  the  conditions  of  life  are  the  characteristics  by  which  all  human 
efficiency  is  attained.  Psychology  has  recognized  with  perfect 
clearness  the  conditions  under  which  these  characteristics  can 
be  developed  ;  when  this  knowledge  has  once  gained  a  victori- 
ous entrance  into  pedagogy,  then  the  old  motto  of  the  school 
workshop  at  Leipzig  will  become  a  motto  for  every  school  and 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


15 


educational  institution :  "  Train  the  eye,  exercise  the  hand, 
strong  will  be  the  will,  clear  the  understanding.'  " 

"  Simply  as  an  aid  to  coordination,  manual  training  would 
justify  itself,  were  that  the  sole  point  of  its  educational  bearing. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  this  is  its  most  elementary  utility. 
It  serves  much  higher  uses  in  bringing  out  individuality,  in 
awakening  desire  for  learning,  in  stimulating  the  will  to  take 
complete  and  wise  command." 

"  It  is  only  when  one  has  experienced  the  shock  of  misfit  be- 
tween what  he  has  thought  will  hold,  on  the  one  hand,  and  what 
he  finally  finds  to  be  true,  on  the  other,  it  is  only  then  that  one 
is  really  sharpened  to  the  point  of  developing  good  judgment. 
Leave  out  the  test  of  practice,  and  people  can  think  all  sorts  of 
things  and  be  entirely  wrong.  We  need  headers  such  as  practice 
brings,  in  order  to  develop  sanity  or  efficiency.  Manual  train- 
ing, because  it  provides  this  test,  is  superior  to  many  other  sub- 
jects. A  well-educated  man  is  one,  therefore,  who  can  do  as 
well  as  know,  and  efficiency  is  a  good  term  for  the  statement 
of  the  aim  of  education,  because  it  includes  these  two  factors." 

"  Manual  training  is  any  form  of  constructive  work  that  serves 
to  develop  the  powers  of  the  pupil  through  spontaneous  and  in- 
telligent self-activity.  The  power  of  observation  is  developed 
through  exacting  demands  upon  the  senses,  the  reason  by  con- 
stant necessity  for  thought  before  action,  and  the  will  by  the 
formation  of  habits  of  patient,  careful  application." 

"  In  many  instances  manual  training  has  so  vitalized  the  school 
work,  or  has  so  infused  new  interests  into  the  minds  of  many 
boys  that  they  reveal  an  added  interest  in  other  subjects." 

"  One  of  the  chief  values  of  shopwork,  weaving,  gardening, 
etc.,  even  in  elementary  schools,  is  that  they  introduce  the 
pupil  to  natural  facts  and  forces  and  give  him  a  motive  for 
becoming  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  concrete  facts  and 
laws  of  nature." 


l6  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

"  Now  manual  training  leads  all  other  school  work  in  its  power 
to  develop  fidelity  to  ideals,  because  our  work  remains  as  a  visual 
tangible  thing,  just  as  we  have  made  it." 

"  The  manual-training  department  of  the  school  offers  to  the 
adolescent  child  an  excellent  opportunity,  in  many  instances,  to 
discover  his  individual  and  peculiar  bent  of  mind  or  proclivity." 

"  Manual  training  in  the  shop  satisfies  this  deep  longing  to 
be  doing  something  with  the  hands.  It  makes  amends  for  the 
great  wrong  done  boyhood  in  transporting  it  to  the  city." 

"  On  the  intellectual  side  our  school  manual  training  develops 
distinctly  the  power  to  grasp  an  idea  and  embody  it,  —  equips 
the  boy  with  a  wide  knowledge  of  methods,  devices,  recipes,  and 
machines  for  accomplishing  the  ends  of  art." 

"The  best  values  in  manual  training  are  in  the  habits, 
ideals,  and  attitudes  it  fosters.  It  interests  many  pupils  who 
are  not  successful  in  other  school  studies,  gives  a  sense  of 
capacity,  power,  and  effectiveness  to  many  a  boy  who  is  almost 
ready  to  accept  the  teacher's  estimate  of  his  incapacity  and 
worthlessness." 

"  The  fact  that  manual  training  offers  a  change  of  work  amply 
justifies  its  introduction  into  the  crowded  school  curriculum." 

"The  purpose  of  manual  training  is  to  secure  a  vigorous 
mental  reaction  through  the  pupil's  manual  activity  and  through 
his  interest  in  the  constructive  problem.  Benefit  to  the  worker 
results  only  when  this  reaction  is  real  and  vital." 

If  asked  to  state  the  purpose  of  giving  instruction  in  manual 
training,  most  teachers  of  the  subject  to-day  would  urge  one  or 
more  of  the  following,  with  greater  or  less  elaboration :  to  develop 
manual  skill ;  to  create  an  interest  in  industries  ;  to  promote  the 
coordination  of  the  mind  and  hand  ;  to  provide  a  corrective  for 
a  too  bookish  education  ;  to  provide  another  approach  to  the 
mind ;  to  provide  another  means  of  expression ;  to  enable  one 
to  apply  the  test  of  practice. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  1 7 

Thus  manual  training  has  ultimately  gained  general  accept- 
ance in  the  public  schools  of  the  country,  quite  apart  from  any 
utilitarian  consideration  whatsoever.  Meanwhile  other  agencies 
than  the  schools  have  beqn  at  work,  and  the  result  has  been  a 
renewed  demand  that  industrial  education  be  actively  promoted 
by  the  state.  This  demand  will  be  more  fully  analyzed  in  other 
chapters,  but  it  must  be  noted  in  this  connection  that  prominent 
among  these  agencies  are  the  report  of  the  first  Massachusetts 
Industrial  Commission  in  1906,  the  formation  in  1906  and  the 
subsequent  activity  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Industrial  Education,  and  the  Washington  meeting  of  the 
Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Education 
Association  in   1908. 

The  report  of  the  Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial 
Education  was  made  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  manual 
training  was  first  introduced  into  the  schools  of  the  state.  This 
report  has  perhaps  done  more  to  shape  thought  and  action 
throughout  the  country  than  any  other  volume  which  has  been 
written  on  the  subject  of  industrial  education,  yet  it  devotes 
less  than  half  a  page  to  manual  training  and  disposes  of  it  as 
follows  :  "  It  [manual  training]  has  been  urged  as  a  cultural  sub- 
ject, mainly  useful  as  a  stimulus  to  other  forms  of  intellectual 
effort,  —  a  sort  of  mustard  relish,  an  appetizer,  to  be  conducted 
without  any  reference  to  any  industrial  end.  It  has  been  severed 
from  real  life  as  completely  as  have  the  other  school  activities. 
Thus  it  has  come  about  that  the  overmastering  influences  of 
school  traditions  have  brought  into  subjection  both  the  drawing 
and  the  manual  work." 

The  meeting  at  Washington  produced  a  profound  impres- 
sion on  the  educational  thought  of  the  country.  Addresses 
by  James  E.  Russell,  dean  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University ;  Edward  C.  Elliott,  professor  of  education,  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin ;    James  F.  McElroy,  consulting  engineer, 


1 8  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Consolidated  Car  Heating  Company,  Albany,  New  York ;  and 
Miss  Elizabeth  Euphrosyne  Langley,  School  of  Education,  The 
University  of  Chicago,  called  attention  to  the  real  meaning  of 
the  retardation  of  pupils  in  our  public  schools,  and  the  final 
elimination  of  a  large  proportion  of  them  before  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work  of  the  elementary  grades.  It  was  shown 
conclusively  that  these  eliminated  pupils  were  the  ones  for 
whom  industrial  education  should  have  been  provided. 

It  is  also  for  the  education  of  those  not  adequately  served  by 
the  traditional  schools  that  the  National  Society  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  Industrial  Education  is  conducting  its  effective  campaign. 

It  should  therefore  be  clear  that  the  Massachusetts  Com- 
mission was  partly  in  error  in  saying  that  manual  training  had 
no  industrial  value.  When  it  is  recalled  that  manual  training 
was  first  introduced  into  the  high  schools,  and  was  only  tardily 
extended  to  the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  schools,  and 
that  a  large  proportion  of  the  pupils  needing  industrial  training 
leave  school  before  reaching  those  grades,  it  will  be  readily 
understood  why  manual  training  has  seemed  to  so  many  to  be 
ineffective  and  without  vocational  value. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  if  the  manual  training,  even  though 
it  has  been  "  brought  into  subjection  "  by  the  "  overmastering 
influence  of  school  tradition,"  could  be  given  to  these  retarded 
and  eliminated  pupils  at  the  right  time,  it  would  be  found  to 
have  a  considerable  industrial  value.  It  would  be  as  stimulating 
to  these  as  it  has  always  proved  to  be  for  the  more  successful 
pupils.  At  all  events  it  will  continue  to  form  a  part  of  the  curric- 
ula of  existing  schools  with  a  wider  rather  than  a  narrower  scope. 

That  industrial  education  means  something  else  and  some- 
thing more  than  the  introduction  of  a  minimum  amount  of 
handwork  into  the  schools  has  already  been  stated,  and  to  the 
consideration  of  this  larger  phase  of  the  subject  the  following 
chapters  will  be  addressed. 


.       CHAPTER  III 

THE   DEMAND  — AN  ANALYSIS 

We  have  seen  that  manual  training  received  its  original  im- 
petus from  a  demand  for  industrial  education,  but  that,  through 
maladjustment  to  school  organization,  it  failed  somewhat  of  its 
purpose.  Recently  a  renewed  demand  has  gradually  become 
apparent.  Failure  to  understand  the  nature  of  this  demand 
has  already  caused  much  unnecessary  confusion  and  misunder- 
standing even  among  those  who  are  earnestly  striving  to  meet 
it.  An  analysis  of  this  demand,  which  is  far  more  complicated 
than  was  commonly  supposed  a  decade  since,  is  thus  of  primary 
importance. 

Demands  have  come  from  the  manufacturing  interests,  from 
organized  labor,  from  educators,  and  from  societies  formed  to 
promote  the  social  well-being  of  men  and  women.  To  these 
might  be  added  the  demand  of  the  youthful  workers  them- 
selves, though  this  demand  is  implied  in  actions  rather  than 
stated  in  words. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  which  of  the  active  agencies  has  led 
and  which  followed.  It  is  certain  that  one  of  the  first  industrial 
schools  in  the  country  was  established  and  supported  by  a  labor 
union  ;  yet,  after  a  careful  study  of  the  demand  of  organized 
labor,  it  is  difficult  to  escape  the  conclusion  that  labor's  chief 
interest  in  the  movement  arises  from  a  desire  to  control  it,  as 
far  as  possible,  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  labor  market 
in  the  interest  of  organized  labor,  and,  as  it  believes,  of  humanity. 
That  this  desire  is  consistent  and,  under  the  circumstances,  justi- 
fiable does  not  change  the  facts. 

19 


20  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Associations  of  educators  have  been  much  interested  for  the 
past  few  years,  if  one  may  judge  by  the  number  of  papers  on 
the  subject  noted  in  the  programs  of  their  conventions ;  yet  it 
seems,  in  many  cases,  as  if  educators  were  restating  rather  than 
making  a  demand.  This  impression  gains  strength  when  one 
compares  their  statement  of  the  problem  with  their  suggestions 
for  its  solution,  for  these  rarely  seem  to  be  consistent. 

On  the  whole,  inasmuch  as  the  forces  behind  each  movement 
for  the  enlargement  of  the  function  of  the  public  school  have 
been  sociological  rather  than  pedagogical,  it  seems  probable  that 
the  demand  has  come  primarily,  or  at  least  most  effectively, 
from  the  manufacturing  and  commercial  interests. 

The  Demand  of  the  Manufacturers 

Manufacturers  are  insisting  that  industrial  education  is  needed 
for  the  salvation  of  our  industries  and  the  maintenance  of  the 
industrial  supremacy  of  the  country.  Statistics  are  not  wanting 
to  show  that  we  enjoy,  or  have  enjoyed,  such  supremacy.  If 
we  have,  how  was  it  attained  ?  We  had,  at  the  time  of  our 
greatest  industrial  expansion,  certain  tremendous  advantages 
over  all  others.  We  had  a  profusion  of  cheap  raw  material, 
much  available  water  power  and  water  transportation,  virile 
native  workmen  of  great  adaptability  and  trained  by  means 
of  our  own  apprenticeship  systems,  large  numbers  of  skilled 
workmen  from  European  countries,  and  later  we  utilized,  not 
to  say  exploited,  an  abundance  of  cheap  child  labor. 

During  the  past  fifty  years  these  advantages  have  gradually 
become  less  marked.  Raw  material  has  been  wasted  and  monop- 
olized. Skilled  labor  is  relatively  scarce.  The  remnant  of  the 
apprenticeship  system  has  little  influence  on  the  supply  of 
trained  workers.  The  character  of  immigration  has  radically 
changed,  and  the  skilled  workmen  of  Germany,  England,  and 


THE  DEMAND  — AN  ANALYSIS  2  1 

Scandinavia  are  no  longer  attracted  to  our  shores  in  large 
numbers,  because  the  opportunities  for  advancement  here  are 
not  sufficiently  superior  to  those  of  their  own  countries.  Efforts 
to  prevent  the  exploitation  of  child  labor  are  meeting  with  ever- 
increasing  success.  With  the  disappearance  of  former  advan- 
tages, the  manufacturer  is  forced  to  reduce  the  cost  of  production 
wherever  possible,  and  his  demand  for  industrial  education  is  an 
attempt  to  eliminate  the  unprofitable  period  of  apprenticeship. 

It  is  true  that  the  changes  brought  about  in  industrial  methods, 
through  the  introduction  of  machinery  of  more  and  more  com- 
plicated and  automatic  type,  have  made  it  possible  to  employ 
effectively  a  large  number  of  unskilled  or  low-skilled  workers, 
and  of  these  there  is  no  dearth.  But  the  demand  of  the  manu- 
facturer to-day  is  for  the  higher  grades  of  labor.  Apparently 
he  will  be  satisfied  if  the  public  schools  succeed  in  training  for 
him  a  large  number  of  the  most  intelligent  boys  and  girls  for 
the  better  industrial  positions.  His  plans  for  industrial  educa- 
tion rarely  touch  the  relatively  unintelligent  and  wholly  unskilled, 
who  leave  the  schools  in  such  astonishingly  large  numbers,  at 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  enter  the  lowest  grades 
of  industrial  employment.  At  best  these  plans  contemplate 
opportunities  for  a  very  small  percentage  of  such  children, 
and  these  the  most  able. 

It  is  obviously  unjust  to  maintain  that  all  manufacturers  are 
actuated  by  purely  selfish  motives  in  advocating  industrial  edu- 
cation, for  of  course  they  differ  in  their  attitude  toward  their 
social  duty  ;  but  the  following  quotations  will  show  with  sufficient 
clearness  that  the  manufacturers  are  concerned  primarily  and 
naturally  with  the  material  product  and  only  incidentally  with 
the  problem  of  education.  > 

In  response  to  the  question,  "  Why  do  you  believe  in  indus- 
trial education  ?  "  the  following  answers  have  been  made  by 
manufacturers. 


2  2  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

"  Because  my  company  employs  about  one  thousand  men, 
and  we  need  men  of  better  skill." 

"'  Because  in  every  branch  of  industry  with  which  we  are  fa- 
miliar, it  is  impossible  to  obtain  efficient  workers  to  take  the 
place  of  skilled  men  who  are  dropping  out  from  death  and  dis- 
ability ;  and  as  a  nation  in  competition  with  others,  Germany  in 
particular,  wc  are  bound  to  suffer  seriously  on  this  account." 

"  Because  we  employ  a  large  number  of  boys,  and  the  present 
school  system  is  turning  out  boys  who  do  not  want  to  work  with 
their  hands." 

"  Because  I  feel  the  necessity  of  a  more  practical  education 
to  be  given  through  our  public  schools.  Book  education  has 
been  pressed  to  its  limit  by  educational  people,  and  is  not  based 
on  practical  business  experience." 

'"  Because  85  per  cent  of  the  pupils  now  getting  their  school- 
ing are  being  crammed,  well-meaningly,  with  a  mass  of  knowledge 
which  is  not  practical." 

A  large  manufacturer  in  a  small  community  felt  that,  inas- 
much as  he  paid  a  large  share  of  the  taxes,  the  school  ought  to 
make  some  return  to  him  for  his  money,  by  giving  definite  in- 
struction in  matters  pertaining  to  his  particular  industry. 

A  manufacturer  of  sufficient  importance  to  obtain  a  place  on 
a  recent  program  of  the  National  Education  Association  made 
the  following  statements  in  an  open  letter. 

"  How  can  we  make  our  schools,  upon  which  we  spend  more 
money  than  any  other  people,  fit  our  children  for  their  life  work, 
and  furnish  our  industries,  the  source  of  our  national  wealth, 
with  their  army  of  skilled  and  willing  workers .''  The  leaders  of 
educational  thought  have  been  at  work  during  the  last  century 
in  creating  our  public  school  as  it  exists  to-day,  in  formulating 
methods  of  instruction  in  reading,  writing,  spelling,  history,  and 
geography,  that  is,  for  teaching  book  subjects.  Our  professional 
educators  are  too  much  cut  off  from  contact  with  active  life  to 


THE  DEMAND  — AN  ANALYSIS  23 

feel  the  need  of  our  time.    Business  men,  conscious  of  the  crisis, 
must  give  the  impulse." 

A  manufacturer,  prominent  enough  to  be  president  of  the 
National  Association  of  Manufacturers,  says  :  '"  The  call  for  us 
to  round  out  and  extend  our  educational  systems  is  more  im- 
perative than  was  ever  issued  to  any  other  people  in  the  world's 
history.  We  must  be  equipped  to  rise  to  an  opportunity  such 
as  was  never  before  offered.  While  we  have  but  5  per  cent  of 
the  world's  population,  we  produce 

25  per  cent  of  the  world's  gold 
33  per  cent  of  the  world's  coal 
38  per  cent  of  the  world's  silver 
40  per  cent  of  the  world's  iron 
42  per  cent  of  the  world's  steel 
52  per  cent  of  the  world's  petroleum 
5  5  per  cent  of  the  world's  copper 
'  70  to  75  per  cent  of  the  world's  cotton. 

"  There  are  three  ways  in  which  we  can  dispose  of  this  wealth. 
We  can  let  the  other  countries  manufacture  for  us  the  raw 
products,  or  we  can  import  foreign  mechanics,  or  we  can  educate 
our  sons  to  shape  these  materials  into  finished  fabrics  and  to 
become  sellers  of  these  articles  to  the  rest  of  the  world." 

Another  prominent  manufacturer  voices  his  opinions  re- 
garding education  and  industry  as  follows : 

"  I  consider  trade  schools  a  just  charge  on  the  public  treasury, 
much  more  so  than  the  advanced  teaching  now  given,  which  I 
think  has  been  carried  too  far.  I  believe  a  large  amount  of  the 
money  spent  in  high  schools  would  be  better  spent  in  adding 
industrial  training  to  the  grammar  schools.  ...  I  favor, 
decidedly,  schools  conducted  by  or  under  the  auspices  of  manu- 
facturing concerns.  .  .  .  If  a  manufacturing  concern  claims 
no  moral  obligation,   but  states  that  the  only  claims  on   its 


24  EXAMPLES  OE  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

graduates  will  be  the  attractions  to  its  service  offered  after  the 
schooling,  I  believe  the  state  would  do  well  to  assist  such  a 
school  by  advice,  and,  under  certain  local  conditions,  by  a 
money  grant,  if  required  standards  are  maintained." 

Some  manufacturers  are  advocating  industrial  education  as 
an  effective  weapon  in  the  warfare  between  capital  and  labor. 
While  this  phase  of  the  question  has  not  assumed  important 
proportions  so  far  as  actual  accomplishment  is  concerned,  the 
persistent  attitude  of  the  National  Association  of  Manufacturers 
cannot  be  entirely  ignored.  It  is  an  attitude  of  utter  hostility 
to  labor  unions  and  a  denial  of  their  right  to  a  voice  in  the  final 
settlement  of  the  complicated  questions  involved  in  this  move- 
ment. It  asserts  the  paramount  interest  of  the  manufacturer. 
The  last  annual  report  of  the  president  of  this  association 
(May,  1 9 1 1 )  contains  the  following  paragraphs  : 

"This  association,  along  with  others,  has  for  a  number  of  years 
strongly  advocated  a  system  of  manual  and  technical  training 
as  part  of  the  general  educational  system  of  the  country.  But  it 
has  not,  nor  does  not  now,  overlook  the  dangerous  tendencies 
incident  thereto ;  and  by  this  I  mean  the  danger  of  such  a 
system  falling  under  the  influence  and  domination  of  the  labor 
agitator." 

"  Militant  unionism  is  the  bitterest  foe  industrial  education  has 
got  or  ever  had  ;  yet  under  the  impetus  which  the  proposition 
has  attained,  and  its  apparent  necessity,  —  if  for  no  other  pur- 
pose than  to  meet  the  restrictions  placed  upon  our  supply  of 
skilled  mechanics  by  the  labor  unions,  —  we  find  some  of  the 
labor  leaders  who  are  most  responsible  for  the  curtailment  of 
our  supply  of  skilled  mechanics,  and  who  stand  unqualifiedly  for 
its  continued  curtailment,  taking  a  hand  in  and  coming  to  the 
front  in  the  movement  for  industrial  education.  And,  unfortu- 
nately, we  find  men  who  are  earnestly  devoting  their  time,  en- 
ergies, and  money  to  promote  this  important  work,  not  only 


THE  DEMAND  — AN  ANALYSIS  25 

willing  to  serve  on  boards  and  committees  with  these  labor 
leaders,  but  apparently  impressed  with  what  seems  to  me  to  be 
an  absurdly  false  and  erroneous  idea  that  those  men,  with  their 
persistent  antagonism  to  the  vital  principle  of  industrial  educa- 
tion, are  essential  to  its  advancement." 

"  I  have  not  the  slightest  patience  with  a  policy  which  seeks 
the  accomplishment  of  a  good  purpose  through  the  aid  of  men 
who  stand  for  a  bad  cause  and  who  are  avowedly  the  enemies 
of  that  purpose ;  men  who  authoritatively  represent  less  than 
5  per  cent  of  the  laboring  forces  of  the  country,  and  those  by 
no  means  the  better  elements,  and  who  woefully  misrepresent  all 
the  balance.  I  care  not  what  the  pretenses  of  such  men  may  be, 
nor  how  often  they  may  escape  the  penalties  of  the  law  for  their 
violation  of  it.  I  feel,  however,  I  am  safe  in  saying  that  the  an- 
tagonism of  this  association  to  the  closed  shop  and  the  methods 
employed  to  establish  it  is  too  strongly  intrenched  in  the  minds 
of  its  members  ever  to  permit  of  any  mixing  up  with  the  labor 
trust  in  its  policy  with  respect  to  industrial  education." 

"  Now,  whatever  may  be  said  or  whoever  may  take  part  in 
this  problem  of  industrial  education,  it  is  the  manufacturer  who 
must  steer  it  to  a  practical  solution  ;  without  him  it  can  amount 
to  but  little  more  than  a  delusion  and  a  farce.  It  is  the  associa- 
tions of  manufacturers  that  have  given  the  subject  its  present 
impetus." 

This  particular  aspect  of  the  demand  of  the  manufacturers, 
related  as  it  is  to  the  demand  of  organized  labor,  can  be  dis- 
cussed more  intelligently  in  the  succeeding  chapter.  ~ 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  DEMAND  OF  ORGANIZED  LABOR 

As  previously  stated,  organized  labor  has  been  interested  for 
many  years  in  the  subject  of  industrial  education.  It  claims, 
with  some  reason,  that  this  interest  is  most  vital  to  its  members, 
being  closely  related  to  the  very  existence  of  their  organization 
and  to  the  maintenance  of  their  present  personal  status.  One  of 
the  most  significant  authoritative  statements  of  organized  labor 
regarding  industrial  education  was  made  in  November,  1910,  by 
Mr.  Charles  H,  Winslow  when  he  said,  "  We  do  not  beg  it  as  a 
favor,  but  we  demand  it  as  a  right." 

But  while  organized  labor  demands  industrial  education,  in- 
dividual unions  are  more  willing  to  say  just  what  kind  of  train- 
ing they  do  not  want,  than  to  outline  a  constructive  policy. 
Labor  unions  also  differ  greatly  from  each  other  in  their 
attitude  toward  the  question,  because  of  the  variety  of  conditions 
obtaining  in  the  several  trades. 

These  facts  make  analysis  of  labor's  demand  peculiarly  dif- 
ficult, but  perhaps  no  more  comprehensive  statement  of  its  views 
can  be  found  than  the  resolutions  passed  by  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  authorizing  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mittee to  investigate  the  whole  subject.  These  resolutions  were 
adopted  at  the  annual  convention  at  Denver,  held  in  Novem- 
ber, 1908. 

Whereas  industrial  education  is  necessary  and  inevitable  for  the  prog- 
ress of  an  industrial  people ;  and 

Whereas  there  are  two  groups  with  opposite  methods,  and  seeking  an- 
tagonistic ends,  now  advocating  industrial  education  in  the  United 
States ;  and 

26 


THE  DEMAND  OF  ORGANIZED  LABOR  27 

Whereas  one  of  these  groups  is  largely  composed  of  the  nonunion  em- 
ployers of  the  country  who  advance  industrial  education  as  a  special  priv- 
ilege under  conditions  that  educate  the  student  or  apprentice  to  nonunion 
sympathies  and  prepare  him  as  a  skilled  worker  for  scab  labor  and  strike- 
breaking purposes,  thus  using  the  children  of  the  workers  against  the  in- 
terests of  their  organized  fathers  and  brothers  in  the  various  crafts ;  and 

Whereas  this  group  also  favors  the  training  of  the  student  or  apprentice 
for  skill  in  only  one  industrial  process,  thus  making  the  graduate  a  skilled 
worker  in  only  a  very  limited  sense  and  rendering  him  entirely  helpless  if 
lack  of  employment  comes  in  his  single  subdivision  of  a  craft ;  and 

Whereas  the  other  group  is  composed  of  great  educators,  enlightened 
representatives  of  organized  labor,  and  persons  engaged  in  genuine  social 
service,  who  advocate  industrial  education  as  a  common  right  to  be  open 
to  all  children  on  equal  terms,  to  be  provided  by  general  taxation,  and 
kept  under  the  control  of  the  whole  people  with  a  method  or  system 
of  education  that  will  make  the  apprentice  or  graduate  a  skilled  craftsman 
in  all  branches  of  his  trade ;  and 

Whereas  organized  labor  has  the  largest  personal  and  the  highest  public 
interest  in  the  subject  of  industrial  education,  and  should  enlist  its  ablest 
and  best  men  in  behalf  of  the  best  system,  under  conditions  that  will  promote 
the  interests  of  the  workers  and  the  general  welfare :  Now,  therefore,  be  it 

Resolved^  That  the  president  in  conjunction  with  the  executive  coun- 
cil of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  be,  and  is  hereby,  authorized  to 
appoint  a  special  committee  of  at  least  fifteen,  to  be  composed  of  a 
majority  of  trade-union  members  of  this  convention,  who  will  serve  with- 
out compensation  and  incur  no  expenses  other  than  necessary  and 
legitimate  expenditure  within  the  judgment  of  the  president  and  executive 
council,  to  investigate  the  methods  and  means  of  industrial  education  in  this 
country  and  abroad,  and  report  its  findings,  conclusions,  and  recommenda- 
tions to  the  next  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 

It  is  generally  conceded,  by  Southerners  themselves,  that  no 
question  of  public  policy  in  the  South  can  be  considered  entirely 
apart  from  the  race  problem.  In  much  the  same  way,  organized 
labor  finds  in  every  movement  some  connection  with  the  supply 
and  demand  of  labor.  In  the  present  instance  labor  discerns  in 
the  movement  for  industrial  education  a  more  or  less  concerted 
effort  on  the  part  of  capital  to  capture  the  schools  for  the 
purpose  of  gaining  a  more  complete  control  of  the  labor  market 


28  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

That  labor  has  ground  for  suspicion  is  clearly  shown  by 
the  attitude  of  some  manufacturers.  In  support  of  this  proposi- 
tion the  American  Federation  of  Labor  quotes  the  following 
statement  from  the  late  James  W.  Van  Cleave,  a  former  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Association  of  Manufacturers : 

"  I  would  attach  a  manual-training  department  to  every  pub- 
lic primary  school  in  the  United  States,  where,  beginning  at  the 
age  of  nine  or  ten,  under  competent  teachers,  boys  could  devote 
an  hour  a  day  to  the  handling  of  tools.  I  would  make  the  in- 
struction compulsory.  Thus  at  the  age  of  fourteen  the  boy  of 
average  intelligence  and  application  would  be  able  to  use  many 
of  the  tools  employed  in  those  trades  which  are  fundamental  and 
important.  Then  I  would  have  free  industrial  high  schools 
where  boys  who  had  completed  the  primary  course  might  con- 
tinue their  education.  Two  years  at  such  a  school  would  qualify 
a  student  to  take  his  place  in  the  world  as  a  first-rate  mechanic. 
The  supply  of  workers  being  certain  and  adeq7iate,  the  labor- 
union  embargo  on  our  industries  would  soon  be  pertnanently 
lifted:' 

The  reports  of  the  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  of  the 
National  Association  of  Manufacturers  for  1905  and  1906  ex- 
press somewhat  similar  views  as  follows  : 

"  It  is  the  modern  trade  school,  and  that  alone,  that  will  make 
our  American  boys  skilled  artisans,  educated  mechanics,  and  hus- 
tling, adaptable,  willing  workmen,  capable  of  filling  any  position." 

"'  There  are  good  reasons  why  it  would  be  unwise  to  establish 
trade  schools  in  this  country  at  public  expense.  The  initiative 
should  be  taken  by  corporations  or  private  individuals." 

"  Technical  and  trade  schools  should  have  opportunities  for 
teaching  their  students  all  the  phases  of  practical  work  by  pro- 
ducing manufactures  of  various  kinds,  which  may  be  needed 
in  the  school,  and,  in  addition,  may  be  placed  on  sale  to  the 
general  public." 


THE  DEMAND  OF  ORGANIZED  LABOR  29 

"  We  cannot  too  strongly  emphasize  the  certainty  of  disastrous 
results  if  American  trade  schools  should  be  dominated  by  the 
labor  unions." 

"It  is  trade  schools  pure  and  simple  that  we  are  in  need  of 
to  turn  out  good  skilled  workmen,  who  can  take  positions  in  their 
various  specialties  and  acquit  themserves  creditably  alongside  of 
workmen  from  this  or  any  other  country." 

"  But  knowing  how  sorely  in  need  of  skilled  workmen  we 
have  been  in  this  countiy  during  recent  years,  and  considering 
the  inefficiency  of  a  large  proportion  of  those  now  in  the  various 
trades,  it  seemed  to  us  that  such  schools  (private  trade  schools 
as  commercial  ventures)  should  be  encouraged." 

""  It  is  plain  to  see  that  trade  schools  properly  protected  from 
the  domination  and  withering  blight  of  organized  labor  are  the 
one  and  only  remedy  for  the  present  intolerable  conditions. 
In  this  connection  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  again  warn  those 
interested  in  the  promotion  of  the  movement  for  trade  schools, 
to  be  ever  watchful  and  diligent  in  guarding  against  the  possi- 
bility of  domination  by  labor  unions,  since  it  has  been  their 
policy  heretofore  to  do  everything  in  their  power  to  discourage 
and  defeat  all  efforts  made  to  establish  trade  schools." 

"  But  we  claim  that  such  [evening]  schools  are  established  for 
the  benefit  of  the  boys  who  are  not  so  fortunate  as  to  be  thus 
employed  [as  apprentices],  and  that  under  no  circumstances 
should  boys  serving  apprenticeships  be  permitted  in  the  night 
classes,  or  for  that  matter  in  the  day  classes,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  boys  not  so  employed." 

"  There  is  a  claim  frequently  made  by  members  of  labor  unions 
that  trades  cannot  be  taught  as  thoroughly  and  completely  in  a 
trade  school  as  in  the  workshop,  or  on  buildings,  or  wherever 
work  is  actually  being  carried  on.  Never  was  there  a  greater 
mistake.  On  the  contrary,  directly  the  opposite  is  true,  with  per- 
haps some  rare  exceptions  such  as  locomotive  building,  which  it 


30  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

is  not  intended  to  teach  in  trade  schools,  at  least  not  for  the 
present.  From  the  very  moment  the  boy  enters  the  trade  school 
he  begins  the  actual  study  and  work  pertaining  to  his  trade,  and 
is  taught  by  competent  instructors  from  the  smallest  detail  to  the 
highest  principles  connected  with  that  trade,  and  he  is  not  given 
his  indenture  papers  until'  he  has  thoroughly  mastered  his  sub- 
ject. Of  course  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  there  would  be 
a  slight  timidity  shown  by  the  boy  when  he  starts  out  as  a  jour- 
neyman, just  as  in  the  case  of  a  speaker  who  appears  before  an 
audience  for  the  first  time  ;  but  this,  after  a  few  days  or  weeks, 
will  pass  away,  and  the  boy  who  learned  his  trade  in  a  trade 
school  will  be  able  to  teach  the  old-style  workman  a  trick 
or  two." 

While  the  report  of  this  committee  for  19 lo  gives  evidence 
of  a  broader  and  more  social  view  than  formerly  taken,  it 
leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  there  is  a  serious  difference  of 
opinion  between  capital  and  labor  as  regards  industrial  education. 

From  the  foregoing  it  should  be  evident  that  organized  labor 
has  excellent  grounds  for  the  fear  that  industrial  education  may 
be  administered  in  such  a  way  as  to  strike  at  unionism's  most 
vital  principles.  The  leaders  of  labor,  therefore,  have  a  right,  if 
not  an  obligation,  to  devote  careful  attention  to  this  aspect  of 
the  movement.  In  general  it  may  be  readily  admitted  that  the 
spokesmen  of  organized  labor  are  demanding  public  industrial 
schools,  partly  because  they  feel  a  need  of  appropriate  training 
for  the  coming  generation,  but  primarily  because  they  see  that 
this  will  be  the  most  effective  way  of  regulating  the  movement  in 
their  own  interests,  and  especially  because  they  believe  it  will 
effectually  prevent  the  subsidizing  and  the  patronage  of  schools 
maintained  or  controlled  by  the  manufacturers. 

As  citizens  they  can  inquire  into  the  nature  of  a  school  which 
a  city  or  a  state  proposes  to  establish,  and  they  exercise  this 
right.    As  citizens  they  seek  to  regulate  or  even  prevent  such  a 


THE  DEMAND  OF  ORGANIZED  LABOR 


31 


school  if  they  feel  that  in  any  way  it  is  antagonistic  to  their 
interests,  and  as  citizens  their  opinion  has  weight. 

It  should  be  emphatically  stated,  however,  that  this  is  not 
labor's  only  interest  in  industrial  education.  The  workingman 
may  not  be  aware  of  the  fact  that  in  an  average  industrial 
community  one  fifth  of  the  school  money  is  spent  in  educating 
one  twentieth  of  the  children,  but  he  is  beginning  to  feel  that  his 
children  are  not  receiving  the  education  they  most  need,  and  he 
is  expressing  his  conviction  that  the  school  work  should  be  mod- 
ified to  more  adequately  meet  that  need.  He  wants  "  the  right 
kind  "  of  industrial  education.  The  following  quotations  from 
prominent  labor  leaders  are  offered  as  a  partial  corroboration 
of  the  above  statements. 

"'  The  public-school  curriculum  at  present  is  based,  in  the  case 
of  the  grammar  school,  on  that  of  the  high  school.  This  I  be- 
lieve is  a  mistake.  If  one  were  to  take  the  children  of  twelve 
and  for  two  years  teach  them  to  use  tools,  they  would  find  them- 
selves better  fitted  for  the  battle  of  life." 

"'  I  am  in  favor  of  industrial  education.  The  form  I  favor  is 
that  of  the  preparatory  and  practical.  ...  I  would  have  all 
trade  schools  open  to  all.  I  favor  preparatory  trade-school  work 
under  public  auspices,  but  do  not  favor  trade  schools  conducted 
by  manufacturing  concerns.  I  deprecate  certain  schools  now  or- 
ganized, referring  in  this  to  correspondence  and  other  trade 
schools  which  cannot  give  practical  education,  and,  because  of 
this,  deceive  both  the  student  and  the  employer." 

"  Industrial  education  ought  to  provide  for  the  children  of  the 
masses  and  for  the  great  manufacturing  and  constructive  indus- 
tries something  equivalent  to  what  the  states  are  now  doing  for 
the  children  of  the  well-to-do  in  fitting  them  for  professional  and 
managerial  careers." 

A  man  prominent  in  labor  circles  states  that  he  has  a  large 
family  and  that  his  children  will  have  to  earn  their  living  by 


32  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

working  with  their  hands.  He  recognizes  the  probable  per- 
manency of  status  of  the  wage  worker.  He  desires  that  his 
children  may  begin  a  very  definite  trade  training  as  early  as 
twelve  years  of  age,  believing  that  ultimately  they  will  be  more 
successful  in  life  than  would  be  the  case  if  they  were  to  have 
a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  traditional  high-school  training  and 
then  were  to  enter  some  trade  without  any  preparation  and  with 
false  notions  about  life  and  work. 

Perhaps  the  majority  of  workmen  may  not  agree  with  him.  It 
is  true  that  they  frequently  desire  a  liberal  education  for  their 
children,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  in  a  large  number  of  cases 
the  education  is  interrupted  when  the  boy  reaches  fourteen  or 
fifteen  or  sixteen  years.  Reluctantly  abandoning  the  hope  of  a 
classical  or  professional  training,  they  demand  an  industrial 
training  that,  to  use  the  words  of  the  report  of  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  will  give  the  pupil  "  between  the  ages  of 
fourteen  and  sixteen  a  course  of  instruction  in  English,  mathe- 
matics, physics,  chemistry,  elementary  mechanics,  and  drawing ; 
the  shop  instruction  for  particular  trades,  and  for  each  trade 
represented,  the  drawing,  mathematics,  mechanics,  physical  and 
biological  sciences  applicable  to  the  trade,  the  history  of  that 
trade,  and  a  sound  system  of  economics,  including  and  empha- 
sizing the  philosophy  of  collective  bargaining.  This,"  the  report 
confidently  adds,  "'  will  serve  to  prepare  the  pupil  for  more  ad- 
vanced subjects,  and,  in  addition,  to  disclose  his  capacity  for  a 
specific  vocation." 

Labor  has  a  program  which  it  will  undoubtedly  reveal  in  the 
near  future.  This  program  will  contemplate  a  longer  period  of 
education,  with  the  compulsory  school  age  raised  to  at  least  six- 
teen years.  It  will  insist  that  no  element  of  general  culture 
now  included  in  the  elementary  education  be  eliminated,  and  it 
will  strive  for  such  an  education  as  will  tend  to  prevent  the 
segregation  of  classes. 


THE  DEMAND  OF  ORGANIZED  LABOR  33 

It  cannot  be  claimed  that  labor  has  made  no  mistakes  in  its 
attitude  toward  this  new  movement.  Labor  has  criticized  the 
trade  school  on  the  one  hand  and  the  manual-training  school  on 
the  other,  claiming  that  the  first  gave  only  a  narrow  training  in 
mere  mechanical  operations,  without  the  underlying  science  and 
technology,  and  that  the  latter  afforded  only  theoretical  knowl- 
edge, which  in  itself  was  of  no  practical  value.  These  are  partial 
truths  and  as  such  are  dangerous.  The  fact  is  that  both  trade 
schools  and  manual-training  schools  have  given  training  of  great 
industrial  value  to  thousands  of  students,  even  though  neither 
school  can  exactly  duplicate  the  training  gained  by  actual 
experience  in  a  trade. 

Labor  unions  have  sometimes  objected  to  the  practice  of  most 
industrial  schools,  of  turning  out  a  practical,  finished  product. 
The  practice,  while  capable  of  undue  and  unnecessary  expan- 
sion, is  absolutely  essential  in  many  if  not  in  most  cases.  It  is 
encouraging  that  organized  labor  has  at  last  placed  itself  on 
record  as  favoring  "the  minimum  of  production  and  the  maxi- 
mum of  instruction." 

Another  mistake  of  organized  labor  is  to  be  seen  in  its  atti- 
tude toward  the  graduates  or  students  of  trade  and  industrial 
schools.  The  following  resolution  passed  by  the  International 
Association  of  Machinists  may  be  taken  as  illustrative  of  this 
kind  of  opposition. 

Whereas  the  report  of  the  international  president  calls  attention  to  the 
threatened  danger  to  our  apprenticeship  system  by  the  trade  schools  of 
the  country,  which  issue  certificates  to  students  as  graduates  in  the  several 
trades ;  and 

Whereas  such  so-called  graduates  of  trade  schools  are  frequently  used  by 
employers  to  prevent  men  gaining  a  higher  wage  or  shorter  hours ;  therefore 
be  it 

Resolved,  That  the  attention  of  our  membership  be  called  to  this  grow- 
ing evil,  and  urged  to  refuse  to  assist  such  so-called  machinists  who  may  be 
engaged  as  "  improvers  "  or  "  men  under  instruction  "  in  acquiring  a  more 
enlarged  knowledge  of  the  business. 


34  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

As  is  the  case  with  the  manufacturer,  so  with  organized  labor, 
greater  HberaHty  and  clearer  comprehension  are  to  be  noted  in 
more  recent  utterances.  The  following  quotation  is  at  once 
proof  of  the  opposition  offered  by  trade-unions  to  students  of 
industrial  schools,  and  of  the  fact  that  clearer  understanding  is 
being  reached. 

James  M.  Lynch,  president  of  the  International  Typographical 
Union,  says  :  "A  situation  has  arisen  that  we  must  meet.  All 
the  indications  tend  to  the  establishment  of  the  opinion  that  the 
technical  school  is  here  to  stay,  and  that  its  graduates  are  a  factor 
that  must  be  taken  into  consideration  by  the  modern  trade-union. 
If  these  apprentices,  or  partially  instructed  students,  are  not 
given  opportunity  to  finish  their  trades  in  union  shops,  offices, 
mills,  or  factories,  they  will  secure  the  needed  finishing  touches 
in  the  so-called  open  or  nonunion  shops,  and  there  will  be  added 
to  this  a  prejudice  against  the  trade-unions  because  of  lack  of 
understanding  of  their  ideas,  methods,  and  practices.  It  is  a  big 
subject,  becoming  larger  with  the  passage  of  time,  and  I  repeat 
that  it  is  a  subject  that  must  be  met,  and  intelligently  met,  and 
whatever  action  may  be  taken  to  cover  it  must  not  be  dictated  by 
passion  or  prejudice.  We  must  meet  industrial  development  with 
trade-union  development,  and,  if  called  upon,  we  must  make  sac- 
rifices for  a  time  in  order  that  the  general  good  may  later  be 
conserved.  We  must  not  confine  our  opinions  and  thoughts  to 
to-day ;  we  must  look  ahead  and  prepare  for  the  morrow,  and  the 
morrow's  morrow." 

As  a  fair  and  disinterested  statement  of  the  real  situation  the 
following  quotation  from  an  address  by  Mr.  Frank  A.  Vanderlip 
is  submitted  for  thoughtful  consideration. 

'"  Some  of  us  are  apt  to  find  much  fault  with  the  labor  situation. 
We  criticize  the  attitude  of  the  trade-unions  and  the  demand  of 
labor  organizers.  Might  it  not  be  well  to  remember  that  we  have 
created  an  industrial  condition  in  which,  in  a  very  large  measure. 


THE  DEMAND  OF  ORGANIZED  LABOR  35 

one  man's  work  is  exactly  like  another's,  and  that  in  certain 
fields  the  work  of  all  is  largely  automatic ;  that  our  industrial 
situation  is  doing  quite  as  much  as  the  labor  organizers  to  reduce 
to  a  dead  level  of  equality  the  value  of  man's  time  in  certain  in- 
dustrial lines.  If  we  want  men  who  will  think  for  themselves, 
must  we  not  give  them  a  training  which  will  enable  them  to 
think  correctly  ?  If  we  want  men  to  become  attached  to  their 
work  and  their  positions,  must  we  not  give  them  an  intellectual 
interest  in  that  work  ?  If  we  want  independence  of  thought  in 
a  workingman,  must  we  not  provide  him  with  the  opportunity  to 
be  something  more  than  an  automatic  figure  revolving  without 
volition,  interest,  or  active  intelligence,  as  the  wheels  of  industry 
revolve  ?  From  the  point  of  view  alone  of  the  attitude  of  the 
workingman  toward  the  industrial  problems  of  the  day,  I  believe 
we  are  doing  less  than  our  duty  in  the  way  of  education  and  very 
much  less  than  the  selfish  interests  of  capital  would  demand  if 
employers  had  a  clearer  vision  on  this  subject. 

"  If  it  can  be  demonstrated  that  this  is  the  correct  view,  that 
moderate  and  wise  administration  of  the  great  democracy  of  or- 
ganized labor  is  more  likely  to  follow  if  the  masses  of  workmen 
are  educated  toward  the  better  intellectual  comprehension  of  the 
principles  of  the  industries  in  which  they  are  engaged,  then 
what  money  value  could  be  put  in  this  country  upon  such  a  sys- 
tem of  education  as  would  ultimately  give  to  organized  labor 
wiser  leaders  ?  I  believe  that  there  is  a  profound  and  important 
truth  in  this  view.  If  we  drift  toward  a  condition  in  which  auto- 
matic workers  live  without  intellectual  interest  in  their  work,  we 
must  expect  them  to  follow,  without  independence  of  thought, 
unwise  leaders  along  paths  that  will  be  destructive  for  capital  and 
labor  alike.  If  we  offer  educational  facilities  that  will  tend  to  train 
a  considerable  number  of  the  youths  following  industrial  callings 
so  that  they  will  better  comprehend  the  nature  of  their  work  and 
its  relation  to  the  whole  industrial  organization,  if  we  will  provide 


36  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

better  schools  that  will  awaken  an  intellectual  interest  in  the 
day's  task  and  kindle  ambition  which  will  lead  men  on  to  better 
work  and  greater  contentment,  we  shall  accomplish  a  step  in  the 
development  of  our  educational  system  which  will  be  of  greater 
importance  than  any  other  change  in  educational  methods  that 
is  now  under  consideration." 

On  the  whole  there  is  good  foundation  for  labor's  contention 
that  it  has  the  largest  personal  and  public  interest  in  industrial 
education.  It  is  interested  in  the  nature,  amount,  and  disposition 
of  the  material  product  of  industrial  schools.  If  the  practice  of 
manufacturing  a  commercial  product  is  adopted,  it  is  feared  that 
the  school  product  might  reduce  somewhat  the  amount  of  work 
now  done  for  wages. 

In  the  second  place,  labor  naturally  desires  to  examine  with 
care  the  possible  effect  of  the  proposed  schools  on  the  labor 
market.  It  wishes  to  be  quite  satisfied  that  they  are  not  to  be 
maintained  primarily  in  the  interests  of  organized  and  possibly 
unfriendly  employers. 

And  finally,  the  American  workman  is  interested  in  the  effect 
of  the  movement  on  general  education.  He  has  been  a -stanch 
supporter  of  the  free  public-school  system  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury, and  he  is  inquiring  whether  the  new  schools  will  curtail, 
in  any  respect,  his  long-established  rights  to  an  educational 
opportunity  supposedly  equal  to  any  in  the  land. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  DEMAND  OF  EDUCATORS 

It  will  be  noted  that  many  of  the  foregoing  statements  by 
manufacturers  and  by  representatives  of  organized  labor  imply 
a  certain  criticism  of  the  existing  public  schools.  It  is  certain 
that  the  schools  have  been  freely  criticized,  and  the  situation  is 
not  without  its  humor.  For  a  generation  the  several  rather  dis- 
tinct units  in  our  school  system  have  been  critically  examining 
the  work  of  each  other.  The  colleges  have  said  that  the  quality 
of  the  preparation  given  in  the  secondary  schools  was  steadily 
declining;  the  high  schools  have  discovered  a  like  downward' 
tendency  in  the  training  afforded  by  the  elementary  grades ; 
and  even  the  teachers  of  these  grades  have  felt  and  said  that 
things  were  far  better  before  the  kindergartens  were  established. 
Meanwhile  the  public  has  listened,  and  it  has  now  apparently 
decided  to  take  us  all  at  the  estimate  of  our  particular  critic. 
It  declares  that  all  branches  of  the  school  system  are  inefficient 
and  inadequate,  governed  by  outworn  and  outgrown  traditions 
and  incapable  of  comprehending  the  conditions  and  needs  of 
the  times,  and  that,  as  a  result,  our  training  is  unrelated  to  real 
life  and  therefore  economically  useless. 

Some  of  this  criticism  is  undoubtedly  true  in  the  case  of  in- 
dividual schools  and  teachers,  but  there  is  a  genuine  misconcep- 
tion on  the  part  of  our  critics.  No  business  man  who  criticizes 
his  newly  employed  elementary-  or  high-school  graduate  would 
think  of  employing,  on  an  important  law  case,  a  man  fresh 
from  a  law  school,  or  of  putting  his  life  in  the  hands  of  a 
physician  recently  graduated  from  a  medical  school.    In  these 

37 


38  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

cases .  he  recognizes  that,  unless  supplemented  by  practical 
experience,  no  scholastic  training,  however  liberal,  will  furnish 
all  the  requirements  for  immediate  success.  Yet  it  is  exactly 
this  immediate  success  that  he  expects  in  his  errand  boy,  clerk, 
or  operative. 

As  before  stated,  the  chief  concern  of  the  educator  is  in  the 
conservation  of  human  power  and  resources,  and  it  is,  after  all, 
the  ability  of  the  young  worker  to  adapt  himself,  somewhat 
adequately  and  in  a  reasonable  time,  to  the  demands  of  his 
newly  found  position,  which  convinces  the  schoolmaster  that  his 
pupil's  education  has  been  a  success. 

Consistent  with  this  ideal  of  the  educator  there  is  heard, 
more  and  more  clearly,  a  demand  from  school  men  themselves, 
that  our  systems  of  education  give  more  attention  to  training 
for  vocations  or  for  vocational  life. 

This  educational  demand  is  comparatively  new,  but  when  the 
study  of  modern  pedagogical  psychology  brought  teachers  gen- 
erally to  see  that  education  was  something  more  than  training 
children  to  memorize  and  thus  accumulate  knowledge,  the  de- 
mand on  the  part  of  the  educator  was  ultimately  assured.  Guided 
by  his  ideal,  and  lighted  by  his  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
human  organism,  and,  on  the  whole,  with  very  little  interest  in 
the  needs  of  business  or  industry,  he  has  come  to  see  the  cultural 
value  of  work  and  the  psychological  value  of  this  direct  appeal 
to  the  interest  and  activities  of  many  of  his  pupils,  particularly 
during  the  period  of  early  adolescence. 

When  it  has  come  to  practice,  however,  the  educator  has 
recognized  the  value  of  industrial  education  as  applying  more 
particularly  to  those  boys  and  girls  who  are  not  successful  in  the 
academic  and  traditional  work  of  the  school.  In  the  beginning 
he  was  quite  willing,  and  in  fact  desirous,  that  this  training  should 
be  differentiated  from  the  so-called  "'  regular  work,"  and  that  it 
should  be  given  by  some  other  agency  than  the  public  school. 


THE  DEMAND  OF  EDUCATORS  39 

He  has  even  maintained  that  utilitarian  work  has  no  rightful 
place  in  our  educational  scheme,  but  this  point  of  view  is  rapidly 
changing. 

Even  now,  many  educators  wish  to  introduce  industrial  train- 
ing with  as  little  disturbance  to  the  existing  system  as  possible. 
They  advocate  a  separate  secondary  school,  and,  for  the  lower 
grades,  a  school  between  the  elementary  and  high,  available  for 
special  classes.  An  excellent  example  of  this  attitude  is  afforded 
by  the  following  statement  by  Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot,  president 
emeritus  of  Harvard  University  : 

'"  Industrial  education  ought  to  mean  trade  schools,  and  noth- 
.  ing  but  trade  schools.  .  .  .  They  [trade  schools]  involve  new 
educational  requirements  on  the  part  of  society,  requirements 
to  a  later  age  than  we  have  been  accustomed  to.  In  most  of  our 
states  fourteen  years  is  the  limit  of  compulsory  education.  These 
trade  schools  will  require  that  children  be  kept  under  the  ob- 
servation of  the  community  up  to  the  seventeenth  or  eighteenth 
year,  and  be  absolutely  required  to  attend  a  continuation  school, 
for  part  time  at  least,  if  attending  no  other." 

The  initial  statement  in  this  quotation  must  be  recognized  as 
extreme  and  dogmatic.  It  will  not  receive  the  indorsement  of 
all  school  men.  In  fact,  school  men  differ  as  radically  as  do  the 
representatives  of  capital  and  labor  regarding  the  place  of  indus- 
trial education  in  the  general  plan. 

There  are  those  who  see  in  industrial  education  a  cure  for 
specific  educational  ills,  as,  for  example,  the  evil  of  retardation 
and  the  final  dropping-out  of  school  of  a  large  majority  of  our 
pupils  at  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years  of  age.  In  writing  on  this 
question  an  educator  says  :  "In  our  educational  organization  and 
policy  we  have  evidently  failed  to  grasp  the  full  significance  of 
a  prolonged  period  of  infancy  as  a  factor  in  the  development  of 
the  individual  and  the  race.  .  .  .  The  real  secret  of  the  loss 
of  pupils  in  the  upper  elementary  grades  is  to  be  found  in  our 


40  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

astounding  failure  to  provide  for  some  of  the  strongest  psycho- 
logical and  social  needs  of  many  pupils  as  they  approach  these 
years.  We  take  boys  and  girls  at  a  time  when  their  impulses 
are  strong  for  active  participation  in  the  vital  interests  of  life, 
and  we  confine  them  within  narrow  schoolroom  cells  with  books 
and  pencils  as  chief  and  sole  means  of  participation ;  we  take 
them  when  their  desire  for  social  cooperation  is  a  dominant 
motive,  and  we  require  each  to  work  for  himself  upon  tasks 
which,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  have  little  to  do  with  the  great 
world  outside  the  school  walls ;  we  take  them  when  their  indi- 
vidual differences  in  capacity,  interests,  and  prospective  careers 
are  properly  matters  of  growing  and  vital  concern,  and  we  re- 
quire them  to  pursue  a  uniform  course  of  study  having  little 
direct  relation  to  these  specific,  powers,  motives,  and  pros- 
pects. .  .  .  The  conclusion  clearly  indicated  is,  that  adequate 
provision  for  vocation  training,  beginning  at  about  the  sixth 
year,  would  tend  to  prolong  the  school  life  of  the  great  mass 
of  children." 

But  there  are  a  few  educators  who  demand  an  appropriate 
training  for  industrial  workers,  basing  their  demands  on  even 
higher  grounds.  Such  a  one  is  Dean  Russell  of  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University.  He  bases  his  demand  on  the  con- 
stitutional right  of  every  American  citizen  to  an  equality  of 
opportunity.  He  demands  democracy  in  education,  that  is,  the 
right  of  each  individual  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  education 
best  suited  to  his  nature  and  his  social  and  economic  needs. 
He  says :  "  It  is  the  boast,  too,  of  most  Americans  that  our 
great  public-school  system  provides  alike  for  every  boy  and  girl 
taking  advantage  of  it.  This  is  half  true  and  dangerous,  as  half 
truths  are.  The  fact  is,  the  American  system  of  education 
grants  equality  of  opportunity  to  those  who  can  go  to  college 
and  the  university.  It  takes  little  account  of  the  boy  —  and 
still  less  of  the  girl  —  who  cannot  have,  or  does  not  wish  for, 


THE  DEMAND  OF  EDUCATORS  4 1 

a  higher  education.  Ten  milHons  of  those  now  in  our  elemen- 
tary schools,  who  will  be  compelled  to  drop  out  to  earn  a  liveli- 
hood, will  have  missed  their  opportunity.  But  why  ?  Do  we  in 
America  have  need  only  of  professional  men  and  men  of  affairs  ? 
Are  those  who  pay  the  taxes  and  do  the  rougher  work  of  life 
to  be  denied  the  opportunity  for  self-improvement }  Are  only 
those  who  can  afford  to  stay  in  school  to  reap  the  advantages  of 
an  education  ?  In  a  word,  what  are  we  doing  to  help  the  aver- 
age man  better  to  do  his  life  work  and  better  to  realize  the 
wealth  of  his  inheritance  as  an  American  citizen  .''  The  ques- 
tions raise  the  problem  of  vocational  training  for  those  who 
must  begin  early  to  earn  their  living.  It  is,  in  my  judgment,  the 
greatest  problem  of  the  future,  and  one  which  we  may  not  longer 
disregard  and  yet  maintain  our  standing  as  a  nation." 

This  statement  may  not  be  accepted  by  all,  especially  by  those 
whose  interests  center  around  the  higher  education.  It  must  be 
admitted  that  the  progress  of  the  movement  has  been  greatly 
retarded  by  those  school  men  who  have  insisted  that  the  pecul- 
iar purpose  of  the  school  is  to  provide  culture  and  culture  alone. 
Those  opposing  industrial  education  on  that  score  apparently 
regard  culture  as  if  it  were  an  "  ingredient "  in  some  compound, 
always  the  same,  quite  forgetting  that  the  culture  of  yesterday 
may  be  brutality  to-day.  They  have  overlooked  the  fact  that  cul- 
ture to-day  is  not  merely  something  which  makes  for  appro- 
priate behavior  in  polite  society,  but  is  that  which  gives  one  an 
emotional  appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  our  complex  and  cos- 
mopolitan life. 

The  very  natural  conservatism  of  educators  has  led  many  of 
them  to  insist  that  nothing  of  vocational  purpose  excepting 
that  which  is  common  to  the  interests  of  every  child  should  be 
permitted  to  enter  into  the  pupil's  education  before  his  four- 
teenth birthday.  They  have  asserted  that  no  adequate  foundation 
can  possibly  be  laid  before  that  time,  and  that  children,  with  the 


42  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

advice  of  their  parents,  cannot  determine  their  Hfe  career  at  so 
early  an  age.  Others  have  maintained  that,  while  it  may  be  a 
momentous  question  to  decide  between  two  or  three  different 
lines  of  educational  and  industrial  work  in  the  school,  it  is  of  far 
greater  moment  to  decide  to  sever  all  connection  with  school 
whatsoever,  and  that  upwards  of  two  million  two  hundred  fifty 
thousand  children  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  fifteen  in 
the  United  States  to-day  have  decided  that  question  in  favor  of 
complete  separation  from  the  school. 

It  may  be  said,  however,  of  educators  generally,  that  their 
acceptance  of  the  teachings  of  educational  psychology,  which  has 
led  the  schools  to  relax  the  rigidity  of  former  systems  of  grading, 
to  recognize  the  need  of  adapting  education  to  the  varying  op- 
portunities, abilities,  aptitudes,  and  interests  of  their  pupils,  to 
revolt  from  the  fruitless  attempt  to  reach  all  through  the  same 
methods,  or  to  force  all  to  progress  at  the  same  rate,  —  that  this 
acceptance  has  assured,  on  the  part  of  school  men,  an  acqui- 
escence with  the  movement  for  industrial  education  which  may 
be  classified  as  a  demand. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  this  demand  has  been  less  insistent 
than  that  of  the  manufacturer,  and  one  is  sometimes  led  to  feel 
that  the  educator  has  been  blind  to  the  people's  needs  and  re- 
miss in  his  high  duty  ;  that  he  has  opposed  where  he  should 
have  helped,  and  followed  where  he  should  have  led.  Undoubt- 
edly the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  movement  has  been  the  attitude 
of  the  conservative  educator,  which  has  varied  from  open  hostility 
to  entire  indifference.  The  opposition  is  apparently  based  on 
the  belief  that  there  is  one  best  education  which  all,  who  possibly 
can,  should  be  induced  to  obtain,  and  it  is  feared  that  any  in- 
fluence which  may  deflect  children  from  the  traditional  path, 
will  do  more  harm  to  our  plan  of  general  education  than  any 
vocational  benefit  to  the  individual  can  possibly  offset.  Whether 
the  ultimate  result   of   this   opposition  will    be   beneficial   or 


THE  DEMAND  OF  EDUCATORS  43 

detrimental  to  the  cause  is  a  matter  of  opinion,  but  the  opposi- 
tion itself  is  a  fact. 

It  is  believed,  however,  as  the  question  is  studied  more  care- 
fully, that  the  guiding  hand  and  wise  council  of  the  educator 
will  be  more  and  more  clearly  apparent.  He  has  insisted  not 
only  on  equipping  the  worker  for  industrial  life,  but  in  so  equip- 
ping him  that  he  will  be  able  to  make  that  life  better  worth  the 
living.  He  has  stood  more  than  once  between  capital  and  labor 
in  their  demands  upon  the  schools,  and  he  has  organized,  if  he 
has  not  taught,  the  most  successful  of  the  numerous  experi- 
ments in  industrial  education  to  be  found  to-day. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  descriptive  chapters  of  this  volume  will 
show  that,  if  there  have  been  conservative  educators,  there  have 
been  also  progressives,  and  that  their  demands  have  been  more 
clearly  expressed  in  actions  than  in  words.  They  are  to  be 
found  in  every  section  of  the  country  and  in  all  parts  of  the 
educational  system. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  DEMAND  OF  SOCIAL  WORKERS 

No  study  of  the  demand  for*  industrial  education  is  com- 
plete without  some  reference  to  the  contributions  made  to  the 
movement  by  philanthropic  and  charitable  institutions  and  by 
reformatories. 

The  purpose  of  the  social  workers  has  always  been  the  amel- 
ioration of  the  hard  conditions  of  the  unfortunate,  and  their 
efforts  have  been  genuinely  altruistic.  These  efforts  have  not 
always  been  marked,  however,  by  scientific  methods,  and  it  is 
only  within  a  generation  that  the  emphasis  has  been  shifted 
from  the  necessity  of  "  giving  "  to  the  necessity  of  "  training." 
Furthermore  this  training  has  come  to  mean  training  for  work, 
and  the  object  has  been  to  furnish  the  means  of  self-support. 

As  a  result  social  workers  have  been  among  the  first  to  make 
a  real  study  of  the  actual  conditions  under  which  the  less  fortu- 
nate of  the  industrial  classes  live  and  labor.  The  facts  have 
been  accumulated  and  systematized,  and  have  been  of  funda- 
mental importance  in  the  development  of  social  "  science." 

The  search  for  pertinent  truths  has  sent  the  investigators  into 
the  homes  and  into  the  industrial  establishments.  It  has  sent 
them  to  statistics  regarding  immigration,  school  attendance,  and 
prisons.  Complete  and  accurate  information  has  been  demanded. 

Social  workers  have  come  to  see  that  their  most  immediate 
problems  concern  those  who  permanently  sever  their  connection 
with  the  schools  at  an  early  age,  and  many  are  beginning  to  feel 
that  a  complete  solution  of  these  problems  is  to  be  found  only 
by  beginning  earlier  than  the  post-school  period ;  that  is,  that 

44 


r 


THE  DEMAND  OF  SOCIAL  WORKERS  45 

school  reform  must  be  made  the  basis  of  the  particular  kind  of 
social  reform  in  which  the  social  workers  are  primarily  interested. 
They  point  out  that  immigration  and  the  ineffective  education 
of  thousands  of  native-born  children  are  swelling  the  ranks  of 
the  unemployed  or  the  irregularly  employed,  and  they  insist  that 
there  is  lack  of  real  economy  in  refusing  a  more  appropriate 
education  to  those  who  are  bound  to  become  wage  earners  in 
their  early  teens. 

The  following  quotations  are  indicative  of  the  opinions  and 
attitude  of  the  officials  of  reformatories  and  prisons,  as  well  as 
of  philanthropic  social  workers,  regarding  the  need  of  indus- 
trial training. 

"  Industrial  training,  by  engaging  convicts  in  some  useful 
industry,  is  the  only  way  to  make  them  obedient  and  tractable 
while  in  prison,  and  industrious  and  useful  members  of  society 
when  they  are  released.  It  is  necessary  that  trades  should  be 
taught  and  prafcticed  in  the  same  manner  as  they  are  practiced 
in  the  world,  that  the  education  and  trade  training  should  fit 
men,  when  they  come  out,  to  support  themselves  in  the  way  the 
world  requires,  as  among  the  causes  of  crime  the  proximate  one 
is  very  often  the  lack  of  ability  for  self-support.  ..." 

"In  many  penal  institutions  labor  is  the  essential  element  in 
the  reform  training  of  the  individual,  and  through  it  he  becomes 
accustomed  to  the  habits  of  industry,  proficient  in  the  use  of  tools, 
and  is  made  to  feel  that  he  has  ability  within  himself  for  the  earn- 
ing of  an  honest  livelihood.  The  plan  that  is  being  used  in  some 
institutions,  of  allowing  prisoners  to  look  forward  to  the  certainty 
of  being  employed  upon  a  better  grade  of  work  as  the  reward 
of  industry,  acquired  proficiency,  and  good  conduct,  is  certain  to 
lead  to  results  of  greatest  benefit  to  the  prisoner,  the  institution, 
and  the  state.  The  prisoner's  ambition  and  interest  are  aroused, 
and  he  is  encouraged  to  pursue  a  course  which  should  end  in 
his  acquiring  a  useful  trade.    Society  at  large  is  benefited  by 


46  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

anything  that  tends  to  better  the  condition  of  the  prisoner  in 
the  way  of  improving  his  opportunities  of  earning  an  honest 
HveUhood  after  his  release." 

"The  importance  of  imparting  to  prisoners  the  complete 
knowledge  of  a  trade,  as  it  lies  in  the  minds  of  those  most  com- 
petent to  form  and  pronounce  an  opinion,  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that,  with  absolute  unanimity,  prison  officers  declare  it 
to  be  their  judgment  that  the  reformation  of  the  prisoner  would 
be  promoted  by  giving  greater  prominence  to  this  object ;  and 
they  further  declare  it  as  their  opinion  that  reformation  genuine 
and  permanent,  whatever  the  first  cost  of  it  may  be,  is  in  the 
long  run  the  cheapest  and  most  profitable  and  will  prove  the 
greatest  ultimate  pecuniary  gain  to  the  state."  ^ 

"In  our  judgment  the  greatest  good  that  can  be  accomplished 
in  our  reformatory  institutions  lies  in  a  more  thorough  course  in 
the  school  of  letters,  in  military  drill,  and  in  manual-training 
and  trades  schools,  not  altogether  because  they  give  us  a  people 
more  handy  and  practical  for  domestic  life  and  better  skilled  in 
trades,  but  because  they  will  give  us  citizens  with  an  entirely 
different  intellectual  basis." 

"  Shop  work  systematically  carried  out  engenders  a  habit  of 
industry  and  observation  that  cannot  be  acquired  in  any  other 
way.  It  gives  to  the  inmate  a  knowledge  of  the  difference  be- 
tween accuracy  and  vagueness,  and  an  insight  into  the  complexity 
of  everyday  life,  which,  once  wrought  into  the  mind,  remains 
there  as  a  lifelong  possession.  Work  in  the  shop  will  confer  upon 
the  inmate  precision  ;  for  under  a  competent  instructor  he  must 
do  the  work  that  is  laid  out,  definitely  right  or  definitely  wrong." 

"  Hence  we  believe  that  the  greatest  results  from  a  scientific 
standpoint  in  the  reformation  of  delinquents,  and  the  greatest 

^  From  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Industrial  Commission  on  Prison 
Labor,  1900,  Vol.  III.  The  date  is  significant.  The  educational  movement  did 
not  take  definite  shape  before  1905  or  1906. 


THE  DEMAND  OF  SOCIAL  WORKERS  47 

good  that  can  come  to  the  younger  generation,  will  be  the  estab- 
lishing of  more  practical  institutions  of  learning,  known  as 
manual-training  and  trades  schools,  where  practical  instruction 
of  everyday  life  can  be  had.  More  practice  and  less  theory  is 
the  need  of  the  hour,"  ^ 

"  I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  so  far  as  bettering  the  con- 
dition of  the  boys  who  come  under  the  care  of  this  institution  is 
concerned,  an  extension  of  the  shop  work  and  trades  would  be 
better  than  a  larger  farm,  for  the  reason  that  very  few  of  them 
will  follow  farming  after  they  pass  out  of  the  school  [Iowa  Boys' 
Industrial  School].  Ninety  per  cent  of  the  boys  come  from  towns 
and  cities,  and  they  will  go  back  to  their  homes  and  follow  some 
trade  or  avocation  which  will  permit  them  to  live  in  a  town  or 
city.  They  do  not  take  as  kindly  to  farming  while  in  school  as 
they  do  to  the  shops."  ^ 

"  The  trade  schools  of  the  Philadelphia  House  of  Refuge  have 
reached  the  point  of  affording  for  the  larger  boys  useful  and  skill-, 
ful  labor  which  enables  them  to  readily  get  mechanical  employ- 
ment after  they  leave  the  house,  at  satisfactory  wages ;  their 
knowledge  of  the  use  of  tools  makes  them  independent,  and  they 
perform  most  of  the  mechanical  work  about  the  buildings.  .  ,  ," 

The  Illinois  Manual  Training  Farm  School  does  not  receive 
the  worst  delinquents,  but  rather  those  bordering  on  that  stage. 
So  successful  do  they  believe  their  division  of  work  between 
school  and  farm  and  shops  to  be,  that  the  president  of  the  board, 
Mr.  Butler,  expresses  himself  thus  :  "  The  work  in  the  school 
is  now  made  almost  as  interesting  as  the  work  in  the  shops. 
Possibly  some  day  the  public  schools  of  Chicago  will  divide 
their  school  hours  as  we  now  divide  ours  at  Glenwood,  one 
half  of  the  time  being  given  to  books  and  the  other  half  to 
work  in  the  shops." 

1  V^^  H.  Whittaker,  Jeffersonville,  Indiana,  National  Prison  Association, 
1906.  2  Report  of  the  Iowa  Board  of  Control,  1903,  p.  710. 


48  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Again,  speaking  of  the  material  with  which  they  have  to  deal : 
"  The  boy  in  the  city  whose  mechanical  genius  makes  it  possible 
for  him  to  teach  his  fellows  how  to  pick  a  lock,  is  just  the 
material  needed  for  our  manual-training  school.  After  he  has 
worked  for  a  week  in  the  machine  shop  of  this  building  he  will 
look  upon  lock  picking  as  something  beneath  his  notice.  .  .  . 
This  boy  is  not  bad.  He  is  just  a  boy,  and  because  he  is  a  boy 
he  must  have  something  to  do." 

Without  waiting  for  reform  within  the  schools,  social  workers 
have  secured  the  establishment  of  association  schools  and 
classes,  and  the  introduction  of  industrial  work  into  prisons 
and  reform  schools,  as  the  surest  way  of  creating  a  better  social 
and  moral  life. 

One  of  the  early  philanthropic  institutions  established  to  give 
especial  attention  to  industrial  education  was  the  North  Bennet 
Street  Industrial  School  of  Boston.  For  many  years  it  has  con- 
ducted classes,  both  in  connection  with  and  independent  of  the 
public  schools,  which  have  been  of  great  value  to  those  who 
were  studying  the  problem  of  the  education  of  the  masses. 
During  the  past  four  years  the  director,  Mr.  Alvin  E.  Dodd, 
in  cooperation  with  the  public-school  authorities,  has  worked 
out  in  detail  a  most  interesting  and  successful  course  of  study 
for  grades  seven  and  eight.  Perhaps  no  school  in  the  country, 
either  public  or  private,  has  done  more  to  demonstrate  the  pos- 
sibility of  making  the  last  two  years  of  the  elementary  school 
vocationally  valuable  to  the  boys  and  girls  who  go  early  into 
industrial  occupations. 

Among  the  best  industrial  schools  in  the  East  are  those 
conducted  by  the  Y.M.C.A.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  these 
schools  frequently  receive  in  tuition  from  the  pupils  a  sum 
equal  to  that  expended  by  the  association  for  salaries  of  in- 
structors. This  would  seem  to  indicate  a  demand  on  the  part 
of  the  workmen  themselves. 


THE  DEMAND  OF  SOCIAL  WORKERS  49 

Instruction  is  given  in  these  classes  in  every  conceivable 
branch  of  industrial  work,  and  educators  have  many  lessons  to 
learn  from  these  efforts. 

One  of  Ame'rica's  first  citizens  once  said  that  if  one  wished  to 
attend  the  best  schools  in  the  country  he  must  be  an  Indian  or 
a  negro.  While  this  statement  is  extravagant,  all  must  admit 
the  remarkable  and  illuminating  results,  both  educational  and 
social,  achieved  by  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  In- 
stitute of  Virginia  and  the  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial 
Institute  of  Alabama,  to  which  this  remark  referred. 

The  above  instances  exemplify  a  demand  for  industrial  edu- 
cation, a  demand  made  by  men  and  women  who  have  no  special 
interest  in  industry  or  in  educational  institutions  as  such,  but 
who  urge  this  training  as  a  cure  for  the  social  evils  following  in 
the  wake  of  unemployed  ignorance.  Perhaps  social  workers  have 
been  clearer  in  their  vision  of  the  end  to  be  accomplished  than 
educators,  and  their  demands  have  been  freer  from  prejudice  and 
criticism  than  those  of  capital  and  labor.  There  is,  in  the  fol- 
lowing quotation  from  the  social  worker,  guidance  for  the  man- 
ufacturers, the  labor  unions,  and  the  educators  if  they  will  but 
take  its  broad  lesson  seriously  to  heart. 

"In  promoting  public  industrial  education  the  social  worker 
must  devote  himself  in  a  painstaking  way  to  the  sympathetic 
study  of  the  point  of  view  of  organized  workmen  as  well  as  of 
progressive  employers  with  regard  to  the  matter.  The  trade- 
unionist's  objection  that  the  labor  market  is  always  in  danger  of 
being  flooded  is  not  to  be  ignored.  In  any  case  the  decision  as 
to  the  direction  in  which  pupils  shall  be  trained  must  be  made 
in  full  knowledge  of  the  labor  market.  The  skilled  journey- 
man's contention  that  there  must,  in  any  case,  be  a  period  of 
special  shop  apprenticeship  is  perfectly  sound  and  holds  just  as 
surely  for  the  craft  of  the  mechanic  or  artisan  as  for  that  of  the 
doctor  or  lawyer.   On  the  other  hand,  the  trade-unionist  must  be 


50         EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

led  to  see  that  the  trade  school  is  simply  another  sort  of  machine, 
which,  though  from  a  short-range  point  of  view  threatening  to 
the  workmen's  wage  standard,  in  the  long  run  can  only  enhance 
the  interest  of  all  concerned  by  stimulating  both  production  and 
consumption  through  raising  the  whole  standard  of  intelligence 
and  capacity.  It  is  inconceivable  that,  as  a  class,  school-trained 
workmen  would  not  be  even  more  jealous  than  others  of  all 
unreasonable  encroachments  upon  their  wage  standard,  and  that 
they  should  not  apply  their  additional  training  to  the  develop- 
ment of  even  more  effective  forms  of  labor  organization  than 
now  exist.  In  any  movement  for  the  development  of  industrial 
education,  workingmen  should  not  only  be  consulted,  but  should 
be  represented  in  the  administration  as  experts  in  many  of  the 
important  detailed  matters  affecting  the  progress  of  such  in- 
struction. The  truth  is  that  industrial  education  is  coming. 
Those  who  do  not  put  themselves  in  line  to  reap  its  advantages 
may  even  have  some  of  its  force  turned  against  them."  ^ 

As  Mr.  Woods  affirms,  industrial  education  is  coming,  and 
from  out  the  turmoil  of  conflicting  demands  the  social  factor  is 
gradually  emerging,  and  it  is  the  only  factor  on  which  all  can  be 
brought  together  in  essential  unity  of  purpose.  It  is  becoming 
clear  that  children  must  be  fitted  for  the  industries  to  the  satis- 
faction of  reasonable  employers,  but  they  must  be  so  fitted  that 
their  entry  into  the  industries  will  be  made  as  happily  as  pos- 
sible, and  with  the  hope  and  prospect  of  advancement  and  of 
ultimate  success. 

This  will  be  done,  not  by  overriding  the  opinions  of  labor 
unions  regarding  the  labor  market  on  one  hand,  or,  on  the  other, 
by  refusing  to  give  training  to  children  except  on  labor's  terms, 
but  by  securing  the  cooperation  of  labor  in  the  radical  improve- 
ment of  educational  facilities  and  thus  in  the  betterment  of  in- 
dustrial conditions  for  all. 

1  Robert  A.  Woods,  Charities,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  844. 


THE  DEMAND  OF  SOCIAL  WORKERS  51 

The  advancement  of  the  compulsory  school  age,  when  it  comes, 
will  be  accompanied  by  such  an  enlargement  of  opportunities 
within  the  school  that  every  child  will  be  materially  benefited 
by  the  added  time  devoted  to  school  work. 

While  this  modification  of  the  public  schools  will  result'  in 
especial  benefit  to  the  future  industrial  worker,  it  will  be  made 
without  in  the  least  affecting  the  opportunities  now  afforded  for 
the  most  liberal  education. 

In  all  educational  work  there  will  be  even  greater  reliance  on 
the  teachings  of  psychology,  but  these  teachings  will  be  inter- 
preted into  terms  of  method  and  organization  by  social  as  well 
as  by  individual  psychology. 

All  this  can  be  effected  only  by  modifying  some  of  our  tradi- 
tional educational  ideals,  and  these  modifications  will  be  discussed 
in  the  following  chapter. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  REVISION  OF  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS  INVOLVED 
IN  THE  MOVEMENT  FOR  INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING 

In  the  foregoing  chapters  we  attempted  to  analyze  what  seemed 
to  be  an  almost  universal  demand  for  industrial  education,  and 
found  that  it  could  be  attributed  to  four  rather  distinct  causes : 
the  desire  of  manufacturers  to  secure  more  efficient  workmen 
without  increasing  the  cost  of  production  ;  the  desire  of  organized 
workmen  to  prevent  the  flooding  of  the  labor  market  with  cheap 
and  partially  trained  labor,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  secure  for 
themselves  and  their  children  an  education  enabling  them  to  re- 
sist exploitation  ;  the  desire  of  the  educators  to  develop  a  larger 
percentage  of  the  children  intrusted  to  the  care  of  the  schools  to 
a  point  more  nearly  commensurate  with  their  several  native  and 
peculiar  abilities  ;  and  the  desire  of  organized  society,  working 
for  social  betterment,  to  eliminate  one  of  the  most  potent  causes 
of  crime  and  unhappiness,  namely  unemployed  ignorance. 

Each  of  the  forces  has  attempted  to  remedy,  in  its  own  pe- 
culiar way,  the  evil  which  it  has  detected.  Manufacturers  have 
conducted  schools  of  their  own,  and  they  have  attempted  to 
secure  municipal,  state,  and  national  legislation  for  the  estab- 
lishment and  maintenance  of  public  industrial  schools.  Labor 
organizations,  partly  as  a  countermove,  have  likewise  sought 
to  influence  legislation,  and  they  have  also  established  schools 
under  their  auspices.  Educators  have  sought  to  provide  an  ade- 
quate training  for  all  pupils  by  enriching  the  curriculum  and  by 
organizing  schools  which  apparently  differ  widely  from  the 
established  types.  •Philanthropic  and  charitable  societies  have 

52 


THE  REVISION  OF  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS        53 

inaugurated  countless  clubs,  classes,  and  schools  for  providing 
one  or  another  form  of  manual  or  industrial  work,  and  have 
secured  its  introduction  into  penal  institutions,  reformatories, 
homes,  and  hospitals. 

All  of  these  forces,  working  together  or  working  separately, 
have  brought  about  during  the  last  generation  a  radical  change 
in  educational  ideals.  Great  as  these  changes  have  been,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  still  greater  modifications  are  immediately 
before  us,  and  that,  when  thrown  into  their  proper  perspective, 
these  changes  will  be  seen  to  be  in  direct  line  with  educational 
reform  since  the  Middle  Ages.  The  doctrines  of  Rabelais,  Bacon, 
Montaigne,  Locke,  Pestalozzi,  and  Froebel,  inteipreted  by  the 
demands  of  Luther,  Comenius,  and  Horace  Mann  for  universal 
education,  and  forced  into  prominence  by  the  existing  economic 
conditions  of  to-day,  show  that  the  present  movement  was  nat- 
ural and  inevitable. 

Our  new  ideal  requires,  first  of  all,  a  more  accurate  adjust- 
ment of  education  to  individual  needs  and  opportunities. 

Those  who  were  formerly  looked  upon  as  the  natural  and  the 
sole  rulers  have  been  forced,  by  the  growing  consciousness  of 
the  masses  of  mankind,  to  yield  something  of  their  power.  They 
have  come  by  necessity  to  acquire  an  interest  in  and  respect  for 
the  "artificers  and  workmasters."  More,  they  must  have  accurate 
knowledge  of  them,  —  their  labors,  aspirations,  and  problems. 
This  indicates  the  bed  rock  of  the  newest  ideal  of  education, 
—  the  recognition  by  the  few,  of  the  needs  and  the  rights  of 
the  many  in  matters  of  education  as  well  as  in  politics  and  re- 
ligion. That  the  power  should  be  yielded  somewhat  reluctantly 
is  only  to  be  expected. 

Since  our  new  ideal  will  require  adjustment  to  individual  needs, 
a  careful  study  of  the  conditions  of  children,  both  in  school  and 
in  industry,  must  be  made.  Much,  it  is  true,  has  already  been 
done  in  the  way  of  investigation,  but  it  is  astonishing  to  see  how 


54         EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

slightly  the  information  has  as  yet  affected  action.  As  the  result 
of  investigations  begun  nearly  a  decade  since,  the  attention  of 
educators  generally  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  approximately 
85  per  cent  of  the  children  entering  the  public  schools  of  the 
United  States,  leave  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  fifteen,  and 
that  a  large  number  of  these  have  not  completed  the  elementary- 
school  course. 

Not  only  is  this  true  in  the  cities  with  their  large  foreign  popu- 
lation, but  it  is  also  the  case  in  rural  districts,  peculiarly  so  with 
the  boys.  Dr.  Andrew  S.  Draper,  commissioner  of  education 
for  the  state  of  New  York,  states  that  "there  is  a  larger  per- 
centage of  illiterate  children  of  native-born  than  of  foreign-born 
parents  in  the  state  of  New  York."  Five  years  ago  this  waste 
by  leakage  from  our  schools  was  prominently  brought  to  our  at- 
tention, yet  surprisingly  little  has  been  done  to  stop  it  by  any  other 
method  than  to  offer  more  diversified  courses  in  high  schools. 

High  schools,  however,  no  matter  how  diversified  the  courses 
offered  may  be,  so  long  as  they  require  the  completion  of  the 
grammar-school  course  as  a  condition  of  entrance,  obviously 
cannot  reach  or  greatly  influence  the  majority  of  the  boys  and 
girls  who  refuse  or  who  are  unable  to  finish  the  elementary- 
school  work. 

Our  revised  ideal  will  thus  involve  a  shifting  of  emphasis 
from  secondary  to  elementary  education. 

Ex-President  Roosevelt  says  :  '"  The  exceptional  individual, 
of  the  highest  culture  and  most  eflficient  training  possible,  is  an 
important  asset  for  the  state.  He  should  be  encouraged  and  his 
development  promoted,  but  this  should  not  be  done  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  other  individuals  who  can  do  their  work  best  on 
the  farm  and  in  the  workshop ;  it  is  for  the  benefit  of  these 
individuals  that  our  school  system  should  be  primarily  shaped." 

This,  of  course,  does  not  mean  any  lessening  of  our  interest 
in  the  higher  education,  but  merely  that  the  education  given  in 


I 


THE  REVISION  OF  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS        55 

the  first  eight  grades  shall  not  be  planned  as  if  it  were  simply 
preparatory  for  the  high  school.  It  must  be  planned  mainly  for 
those  who  will  fill  the  ranks  of  the  industrial  army. 

America  is  the  land  of  promise  and  should  undoubtedly  con- 
tinue to  foster  the  idea  that  there  is  "'  room  at  the  top  "  ;  but  it 
is  time  that  we  thought  seriously  about  the  educational  rights  of 
those  who  must  fall  short  of  the  top,  —  who,  perhaps,  must  stay 
near  the  bottom.  Our  scheme  of  education  is  planned  for  the 
few  rather  than  the  many.  It  is  a  selective  process,  and  the  ma- 
chinery and  methods  are  adapted  to  those  who  "  go  to  the  top." 

If  children  began  school  at  the  age  of  six  and  progressed 
regularly  from  grade  to  grade,  compulsory  school  attendance  till 
the  fourteenth  birthday  would  assure  to  all  the  completion  of 
the  elementary-school  course.  This  is  not,  however,  the  case ; 
and  in  cities  where  statistics  are  available,  the  figures  show  that 
the  greatest  loss  of  children  from  the  school  is  in  passing  from 
the  fifth  to  the  sixth,  or  the  sixth  to  the  seventh  grade,  and  that 
large  numbers  of  children,  on  leaving  school  at  fourteen  years, 
have  not  passed  beyond  the  fourth  grade. 

Our  new  ideal  would  thus  seem  to  require  a  careful  revision 
of  the  elementary  school :  first,  to  secure  a  more  reasonable  pro- 
gression from  grade  to  grade  by  all,  through  the  right  kind  of 
work,  teachers,  and  conditions ;  and  second,  to  provide  an  educa- 
tion that  will  make  it  worth  while  for  all  to  remain  in  school  a 
little  longer,  and  one  which  not  only  is  worth  while,  but  one 
which  will  appeal  to  the  children  and  their  parents  as  being  so. 

The  present  form  of  the  elementary  school  has  come  down  to  us 
from  the  time  when  the  home  and  the  farm  provided  the  children 
with  ample  opportunity  for  vocational  experience,  through  con- 
crete, creative  work  under  natural  conditions.  Our  reorganized 
elementary  school  will  seek  to  substitute  other  conditions,  just 
as  real,  which  will  provide  for  the  actual  participation  of  the  chil- 
dren in  productive  activity.    The  traditional  manual  training 


56  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

attempted  to  do  this,  but  failed,  so  far  as  the  awakening  of  in- 
dustrial interest  is  concerned,  because  it  substituted  artificial 
needs  for  real  ones,  and  then  sought  to  administer  to  those  needs 
through  tool  work,  which  was  generally  unrelated  and  often 
inappropriate. 

Our  revised  ideal  will  require  the  adoption  of  a  more  flexible 
school  organization,  —  one  which  will  provide  for  an  earlier  dif- 
ferentiation than  is  now  afforded  by  the  division  into  elementary 
schools  of  eight,  and  secondary  schools  of  four,  years.  It  will  re- 
quire that  differentiation  be  made  possible  at  the  sixth  or  seventh 
grade,  or  when  the  child  is  twelve  or  thirteen  years  old. 

It  is  frequently  contended  that  this  is  too  early  in  life  for  a 
boy  to  decide  for  himself,  or  for  his  parents  to  decide  for  him, 
that  he  will  enter  upon  an  industrial  course  or  a  commercial 
course,  but  the  fact  remains  that  the  majority  of  our  boys  and 
girls  are  deciding  at  about  this  age  to  leave  school  altogether 
and  go  to  work.  Would  they  not  run  less  risk  of  making  a  mis- 
take were  they  to  select  one  of  the  vocational  schools  established, 
or  to  be  established,  for  children  of  elementary  grade .-' 

This  earlier  differentiation,  by  the  way,  is  now  possible  in 
some  cities  for  boys  who  are  going  to  college.  Such  are  admitted 
to  the  preparatory  school  at  the  sixth  grade.  This  is  because 
those  who  usually  make  courses  of  study  and  decide  questions  of 
school  organization  are  college  men.  As  such  they  appreciate  the 
value  of  an  appropriate  training  for  the  college  courses,  and  insist 
on  it,  even  though  the  boy  must  omit  the  study  of  music,  drawing, 
design,  and  manual  training.  May  it  not  be  equally  advisable  for 
the  boy  who  is  to  have  an  education  for  industrial  life,  to  have 
an  early  preparation  in  drawing,  applied  geometry,  design,  and 
constructive  work,  even  though  he  must  omit  some  of  the  more 
formal  work  of  our  traditional  courses,  as,  for  example,  technical 
grammar  and  demonstrative  geometry  ?  Differentiation  at  the 
sixth  grade  will  give  both  of  the  above  types  an  equal  opportunity. 


THE  REVISION  OF  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS        57 

While  the  need  of  remodeHng  the  elementary  school  is  the 
greatest,  our  new  ideal  will  require  new  and  varying  high  or  sec- 
ondary schools,  or  differentiated  departments  in  existing  high 
schools.  These  new  secondary  schools  or  departments  will  be 
intensively  vocational  in  purpose,  and  it  is  expressly  intended 
that  they  shall  not  lead  to  higher  schools  excepting  those  which 
are  also  distinctly  vocational,  but  shall  lead  directly  to  business 
and  industry. 

Educators  are  being  warned  not  to  train  boys  away  from  the 
farm  and  the  shop.  This  the  schools  have  undoubtedly  done  to 
some  extent.  Our  revised  ideal  will  require  that  we  educate  the 
boy  for  work  on  the  farm  and  in  the  shop,  but  that  we  shall  so 
educate  him  that  he  will  make  a  better  farmer  and  will  develop 
a  richer  farm  life,  or  will  demand  a  better  shop  and  conditions 
more  favorable  to  progress  and  to  a  reasonable  enjoyment  of  his 
work  and  his  leisure. 

The  whole  tendency  of  industrial  development  during  the  past 
two  hundred  years  has  been  to  concentrate  in  the  hands  of  fewer 
and  fewer  men  the  management  and  direction  of  industry,  until, 
while  the  theoretical  possibility  of  rising  out  of  the  ranks  to  be  a 
captain  of  industry  still  exists  for  each  individual,  the  probability 
that  a  considerable  number  will  do  so  is  remote,  and  for  the 
vast  majority  we  must  admit  that  it  is  an  absolute  impossibility. 

The  problem  then  is  to  provide  such  an  education  as  will  make 
clear  to  this  majority  the  meaning  and  the  joy  of  work  and  of 
study.  The  time  devoted  to  education  in  the  elementary  and 
secondary  schools  is  too  short  to  impart  all  necessary  knowledge, 
but  it  may  not  be  too  short  to  develop  the  desire  for  knowledge 
and  skill,  and  the  habits  of  study  and  of  industry. 

How  can  this  be  accomplished }  The  purpose  of  the  lower 
schools  has  been  and  must  remain  broadly  cultural.  The  revised 
ideal  will  set  the  task  of  ascertaining  what  part  vocational  activ- 
ities —  agricultural,  commercial,  and  industrial  —  can  contribute 


58  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

to  this  culture,  by  making  the  vocational  work  central,  and  by 
grouping  around  it  and  articulating  with  it  the  book  or  study 
work,  thus  providing  a  new  incentive  to  study  and  a  new  mean- 
ing to  knowledge  and  art. 

The  direction  and  management  of  the  schools  will  also  need 
modification.  Instead  of  insisting  that  educational  results  ob- 
tained in  these  schools  be  measured  only  by  traditional  educa- 
tional standards  and  methods,  our  revised  ideal  will  require  that 
the  vocational  schools  submit  their  product  to  the  tests  applied  by 
business  and  industry.  The  schools  will  therefore  accept  the 
assistance  and  the  advice  of  business  men  and  manufacturers ; 
they  will  not,  however,  turn  over  the  management,  and  especially 
the  instruction,  to  commercial  interests,  but  will  clearly  recognize 
the  need  and  value  of  cooperating  with  them.  The  advisory 
committee  will  play  an  important  part  in  the  development  of  the 
new  schools. 

Another  ideal  which  will  require  revision  is  that  regarding  the 
qualification  of  the  teachers  of  industrial  subjects.  When  manual 
training  was  first  introduced  into  the  public-school  system,  the 
demand  for  teachers  was  much  greater  than  the  supply.  There 
were  many  mechanics,  young  men  of  good  habits,  with  a  com- 
mon-school education  or  more,  and  a  liberal  training  in  some 
particular  trade.  These  men,  however,  were  not  desired  as 
teachers.  At  first  it  might  appear  that  they  were  passed  by  be- 
cause of  their  lack  of  professional  pedagogical  training.  This 
cannot  have  been  the  case,  for,  at  the  same  time,  men  who 
had  merely  a  traditional  college  education  were  given  positions 
to  teach  academic  subjects  in  high  schools  although  they  also 
lacked  the  teacher's  professional  training.  Neither  had  any 
knowledge  of  educational  psychology,  or  of  the  practices  which 
those  principles  had  demonstrated  to  be  effective  in  the  teaching 
of  children.  Experience  would  indicate  that  college  graduates 
show  no  more  willingness  or  ability  to  follow  these  teachings 


THE  REVISION  OF  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS        59 

than  do  the  instructors  in  industrial  and  commercial  branches, 
who  have  succeeded,  in  spite  of  restrictions,  in  gaining  entrance 
to  the  educational  profession. 

The  fact  is,  that  educational  authorities  very  early  set  up 
scholastic  requirements  for  the  teachers  of  the  new  subjects. 
Before  a  man  could  teach  machine-shop  work  in  a  high  school 
he  had  to  pass  an  examination  in  English  and  American  literature, 
algebra,  demonstrative  geometry,  a  foreign  language,  etc.,  etc. 
The  result  was  that  in  time  the  work  fell  into  the  hands  of  men 
who  were  trained  in  the  traditional  school  subjects  rather  than  in 
the  practical  work  which  they  were  to  teach.  They  knew  a 
foreign  language,  imperfectly,  but  they  knew  little  or  nothing  of 
the  universal  language,  drawing.  They  knew  demonstrative 
geometry,  but  little  descriptive  or  applied  geometry.  They  knew 
something  of  algebra,  but  they  never,  by  any  possible  chance, 
made  use  of  it  in  the  shop,  and  were,  of  course,  entirely  un- 
familiar with  shop  formulae.  To-day  the  manual-training  work 
generally  is  condemned  by  the  "  public,"  the  manufacturers,  and 
the  labor  leaders,  as  being  absolutely  useless  as  industrial  train- 
ing, and  the  teachers  as  being  incapable  of  conducting  or  of 
understanding  the  purpose  of  real  industrial  schools.  While 
much  of  the  criticism  is  unjust  the  lesson  is  evident.  Our 
revised  ideal  will  permit  us  to  employ  as  teachers  men  and 
women  who  have  intelligence  equal  to  that  of  the  ordinary 
teacher,  and  a  general  education  which  enables  them  to  handle 
effectively  the  ordinary  means  of  expression,  oral,  written,  and 
graphic ;  a  liberal  education,  including  experience,  in  their  spe- 
cialty ;  and  a  working  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  practices 
of  teaching. 

Our  revised  ideal  will  require  constant  opportunity  for  varied, 
hopeful,  and  extensive  experimentation,  with  inspiration  drawn 
not  from  the  traditions  of  the  past  but  from  the  needs  of  real 
children  who  are  preparing  for  the  struggle  with  present-day 


6o  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

conditions.  Investigations  we  have  had  in  abundance,  —  investi- 
gations of  conditions  on  this  and  the  other  side  of  the  water. 
Experiments  are  mnch  more  necessary  to-day.  One  example  is 
more  fruitful  than  a  thousand  arguments. 

Several  worthy  examples  have  already  been  set  by  individual 
schools  or  school  systems,  and  some  of  the  more  instructive  of 
these  will  be  described  or  noted  in  later  chapters.  In  this  con- 
nection, however,  may  be  mentioned  the  action  of  the  New  York 
State  Education  Department,  which  invites  such  experimentation. 

In  a  syllabus  issued  in  the  summer  of  1910  the  department 
recommended  that  a  six-year  elementary  course  be  put  into  effect 
the  following  September.    The  following  statement  was  made : 

In  determining  the  work  of  the  elementary  schools  a  six-year  course  has 
been  prepared.  The  course  is  general  in  character  and  adapted  to  all  chil- 
dren until  that  period  of  their  development  when  they  manifest  different 
interests,  mental  powers,  and  tastes,  which  is  usually  at  the  age  of  twelve. 

This  six-year  course  is  followed  by  an  intermediate  course  of  two  years, 
covering  the  usual  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  rounding  out  the  elemen- 
tary course.  In  this  two-year  course  the  work  begins  to  differentiate.  Work 
is  planned  which  leads  to  the  long-established  high-school  courses,  to  com- 
mercial courses,  and  to  industrial  courses.  Certain  work  previously  done 
in  the  high-school  course  has  been  brought  down  into  this  two-year  course 
to  economize  the  pupils'  time,  to  reduce  the  pressure  and  strain  under  which 
high-school  students  have  labored  during  their  first  years  in  high  schools, 
and  to  interest  pupils  in  work  which  will  induce  them  to  remain  in  school 
for  a  greater  number  of  years. 

The  new  ideal  will  require  the  schools  to  cooperate  both  with 
the  parent  and  with  the  employer  in  assisting  the  child  or  youth 
at  that  most  important  and  trying  time  in  his  life  when  he  passes 
from  the  school  to  the  more  exacting  responsibilities  and  the 
longer  hours  of  work.  Formerly  the  boy  entered  into  the  new 
experiences  of  his  industrial  life  with  his  hand,  so  to  speak,  in 
the  hand  of  his  father.  This  transition  is  now  commonly  made 
by  the  boy  alone.  It  is,  furthermore,  far  more  difficult  now  than 
then,  because  it  is  a  transition  from  all  school  and  play  to  all 


THE  REVISION  OF  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS        6 1 

work, —  from  a  perfectly  familiar  environment  to  one  that  is 
completely  unknown.  The  public,  represented  by  the  school, 
should  be  intensely  interested  in  the  boy  or  the  girl  at  this  critical 
period,  and  should  retain  a  reasonable  responsibility  for  his 
control  and  guidance. 

To  summarize  : 

Our  ideal  will  secure  a  more  accurate  adjustment  of  educa- 
tional facilities  to  individual  needs  and  capacities. 

It  will  require  the  centering  of  interest  on  the  education  of 
the  8  5  per  cent  of  our  children,  with  the  consequent  enlargement 
of  our  regard  for  the  elementary  school. 

It  will  demand  greater  flexibility  and  more  definite  purpose  in 
courses  of  study  and  school  organization. 

It  will  show  the  wisdom  of  a  complete  differentiation  of 
purpose  at  an  earlier  age  than  is  now  commonly  possible. 

It  will  demand  a  new  type  of  secondary  school. 

It  will  demand  that  our  inspiration  be  drawn  from  the  study 
of  existing  conditions,  and  that  we  discover,  by  experimentation, 
and  emphasize  the  culture  which  is  to  be  derived  from  common 
work  well  done. 

It  will  admit  to  the  teaching  force  men  and  women  who  are 
thoroughly  competent  to  give  the  needed  instruction,  and  who 
have  an  accurate  and  practical  knowledge  of,  and  an  interest  in, 
the  particular  vocation  for  which  the  school  or  class  is  training 
its  pupils. 

It  will  compel  us  to  seek  the  cooperation  of  all  interested  in 
the  child's  welfare,  —  parent,  teacher,  and  employer,  —  to  the 
end  that  he  may  make  a  successful  and  happy  entry  into  his 
vocational  life. 

Finally,  this  revision  of  ideals  does  not  require  that  we  relin- 
quish aught  of  the  high  purpose  which  has  always  dominated 
American  educational  institutions,  —  the  desire  to  promote  broad 
culture,  a  sensitiveness  to  the  refining  influences  of  all  that  is 


62  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

best  in  literature,  art,  science,  technology,  life,  in  so  far  as  our 
experiences  bring  us  into  contact  with  these  influences.  It  does 
not  mean  that  we  should  reduce  our  effort  to  provide  for  the  few 
the  very  closest  and  most  complete  contact  with  any  or  all  of 
these  influences.  It  does  not  ask  that  we  overlook  or  minimize 
the  immense  value,  to  the  many,  of  this  liberal  education  of  the 
few,  but  may  it  not  be  true  that  the  most  important  service 
education  cai;i  render  the  country  at  the  present  time  is  to  teach 
workers  to  work,  but  to  work  in  such  a  way  and  with  such  a 
comprehension  of  what  work  means,  with  such  a  knowledge  of 
the  conditions  under  which  work  is  commonly  done,  and  with 
such  an  appreciation  of  the  value  and  purpose  of  leisure,  that  the 
very  work  may  be  made  the  means  of  culture  to  the  worker, 
bringing  to  him  something  of  the  development  which  work 
brought  to  the  worker  when  craftsmanship  was  at  its  best  and 
the  work  became  art  and  the  worker  an  artist  ? 

In  whatever  part  of  the  large  field  his  main  interests  may  lie, 
no  student  of  education  who  has  clear  sight  can  fail  to  recognize 
the  fundamental  importance  of  the  proposition  to  utilize,  in  the 
education  of  an  industrial  people,  the  cultural  value  of  work. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

A   PLAN   FOR  IMMEDIATE  REORGANIZATION 

Complete  and  adequate  reorganization  of  public-school  systems 
in  accordance  with  new  ideals  will  require  time  and  wise  experi- 
mentation, and  concrete  examples  will  furnish  the  most  convinc- 
ing arguments.  At  the  same  time  much  benefit  may  result 
from  the  formulation  of  comprehensive  plans  based  on  the 
present  organization  of  our  schools,  but  made  large  enough  to 
include  the  education  of  all  the  children  in  a  given  community. 
It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  outline  a  tentative  plan 
suitable  for  the  schools  of  urban  and  especially  of  industrial 
communities.  Only  the  most  prominent  and  general  character- 
istics can  be  given,  as  it  is  fundamentally  important  that  all 
details  be  determined  by  local  conditions. 

In  the  first  place  the  plan  must  eliminate  all  preventable 
retardation  in  the  grades.  Already  progress  in  this  direction  has 
been  made  by  the  somewhat  common  establishment  of  classes 
for  mental  defectives,  of  disciplinary  classes  for  those  who  are 
especially  unruly,  and  of  ungraded  classes  for  those  who  are 
temporarily  under  grade  in  some  studies.  But  it  will  require 
measures  more  inclusive  and  far-reaching  than  these  to  secure  the 
reasonable  development  of  each  individual  in  the  first  six  grades. 
Among  possible  improvements  are  smaller  classes,  shorter  terms 
and  more  frequent  promotions,  and  the  grading  of  the  pupil  in 
each  subject  or  in  groups  of  subjects,  thus  securing  his  progress 
where  progress  is  possible,  even  if  he  fails  to  advance  in  one 
or  another  study.  Throughout  this  period  there  should  be  pos- 
sible a  wide  variety  in  methods  of  instruction  to  suit  individual 

63 


64         EXAMPtES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

characteristics,  but  an  absolute  unity  of  purpose,  namely,  to 
give  each  pupil  an  opportunity  of  developing  in  every  possible 
direction.  The  added  expense  of  such  a  plan  is  admitted,  but  it 
is  reasonable  to  believe  that  it  would  be  more  economical  than 
the  present  wasteful  arrangement,  which  admittedly  fails  with 
50  per  cent  of  the  pupils  in  the  public  schools.  At  the  end  of 
the  sixth  grade,  and  at  intervals  thereafter,  provision  should  be 
made  for  differentiation  of  purpose  as  well  as  of  method.  How 
minutely  the  school  work  must  be  subdivided  it  is  impossible  to 
say,  but  it  is  apparent  that  it  must  follow  the  tendency  of  the 
times  toward  specialization,  and,  furthermore,  that  there  are  four 
points  at  which  this  differentiation  of  purpose  will  be  most  effec- 
tive. These  are  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  and  eighth  grades  of 
the  elementary  school,  and  of  the  second  and  fourth  years  of  the 
present  high-school  period. 

Let  us  examine  briefly  the  opportunities  which  should  be 
offered  at  each  of  these  points. 

At  the  close  of  the  sixth  year  those  children  who  are  defi- 
nitely planning  to  leave  school  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade  or 
earlier  should  be  permitted  but  noX.  forced  to  enter  upon  a  course 
of  study  arranged  with  that  fact  clearly  in  mind.  This  course 
should  be  strongly  influenced  by  the  local  vocational  possibilities 
open  to  children  at  an  early  age.  It  is  sometimes  designated  as 
"  pre  vocational."  It  should  aim  not  primarily  to  fit  the  children 
for  these  positions,  which  are  probably  undesirable,  but  to  give 
them  such  an  understanding  of  the  conditions  as  would  induce 
them  to  remain  longer  in  school  whenever  possible.  Failing  this, 
the  child  is  better  able  to  cope  with  the  unfortunate  conditions 
and  to  work  through  them  to  something  better.  It  should  be 
noted  that  this  course  serves  a  double  purpose,  —  to  deter  those 
who  would,  and  to  assist  those  who  must,  leave  school  at  fourteen 
or  fifteen  years.  The  course  should  have  the  further  purpose  of 
impressing  the  pupils  with  the  value  of  trade-school  training 


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65 


66  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

and  of  interesting  them  in  continuation-school  opportunities, 
either  day  or  evening,  where  such  exist.  There  is  a  possibiHty 
that  the  early  worker  may  become  a  permanent  student,  a  thing 
strongly  to  be  desired. 

While  these  pupils  have  entered  upon  the  differentiated 
seventh-grade  course  with  the  idea  of  terminating  their  studies 
at  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade,  possibility  of  changing  their  plans 
and  of  continuing  their  school  work  beyond  this  point  should 
not  be  closed  to  them.  The  possibilities  offered  on  completing 
the  eighth  grade  should  be  entrance  to  a  trade  school  or  to  a 
vocational  course  in  the  high  school.  Pupils  should  not  expect 
to  enter  upon  the  classical  high-school  course  with  the  same 
chances  of  success  as  those  who  did  not  differentiate  their  work 
at  the  seventh  grade. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  paths  open  to  the  pupils  planning  to 
go  beyond  the  eighth  grade. 

All  such  would  continue  through  grades  seven  and  eight  with 
effective  preparation  for  the  high  school.  Arriving  at  the  first  year 
of  the  high  school  the  ways  divide  again  very  much  the  same  as 
in  grade  seven.  Those  planning  to  remain  two  years  or  less  may 
elect  a  specific  vocational  course,  at  the  end  of  which  they  may 
( I)  go  to  work,  (2)  decide  to  continue  with  intensive  vocational 
work  in  the  high  school  for  one  or  two  additional  years,  or  (3) 
enter  the  trade  school,  to  which  later  reference  will  be  made. 

The  remainder  of  the  pupils,  those  expecting  to  graduate 
from  the  high  school,  whether  they  enter  college  or  not,  have  a 
choice  between  several  high-school  courses,  —  classical,  com- 
mercial, agricultural,  or  technical  (including  domestic  science 
and  art). 

Finally,  those  who  decide  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  year  of 
the  high  school  to  terminate  their  studies  on  graduation  will  have 
open  to  them  not  only  the  college  preparatory  course  and  the 
general  high-school   course,  but  optional  intensive  vocational 


A  PLAN  FOR  IMMEDIATE  REORGANIZATION      67 

courses.  They  should  not  expect  to  enter  on  existing  college 
courses  from  the  vocational  classes. 

A  qualifying  statement  should  be  made,  and  the  importance 
of  this  fact  is  great.  At  the  place  of  branching,  some  of  the 
subjects  of  instruction  may  easily  be  common  to  the  curricula 
of  both  or  of  all  branches  made  at  that  point.  This  will  serve 
both  a  social  and  an  educational  end,  since  it  reduces  segrega- 
tion to  the  minimum  and  removes  something  of  the  irrevoca- 
bility of  the  decision. 

We  have  examined  the  plan  as  to  its  horizontal  stratification, 
A  clearer  meaning  of  its  import  may  be  gained  from  considering 
one  or  more  of  its  vertical  divisions. 

At  the  foundation,  and  common  to  all  divisions,  lies  a  six 
years'  training  of  the  most  scientific  and  modern  character,  with 
every  possible  effort  devoted  to  meeting  the  needs  of  each  indi- 
vidual educationally,  in  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word.  Here 
no  thought  of  economic  efficiency  need  enter  to  modify  any 
method  shown  to  be  successful  in  awakening  real  interest  and 
intellectual  effort  on  the  part  of  the  children.  No  retarded  child 
should  be  considered  stupid  or  lazy  simply  because  he  is  "differ- 
ent" from  the  imaginary  average.  In  fact,  he  should  not  be 
retarded  but  should  be  subjected  to  such  stimuli  as  will  excite  his 
interest  and  impel  effort.  It  is  probable  that  few  children  will  be 
found  wholly  unresponsive  to  the  various  methods  which  modern 
educational  science  has  demonstrated  to  be  effective. 

From  this  point  the  pupils  may  be  divided  into  four  rather 
distinct  groups  :  (i)  those  going  to  college  ;  (2)  those  planning 
to  complete  the  high-school  course ;  (3)  those  planning  to  take 
only  the  two-year  vocational  course  in  the  high  school ;  (4)  those 
expecting  to  terminate  their  schooling  at  the  end  of  the  elemen- 
tary course. 

Let  us  examine  the  main  subdivisions  of  the  most  extensive 
and  liberal  training,  namely,  that  terminating  in  the  professional 


68  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

schools.  This  may  be  divided  horizontally  between  (i)  a  period 
devoted  to  broad  general  training,  corresponding  to  the  elemen- 
tary grades  and  the  first  two  years  of  the  high  school ;  (2)  a  shorter 
period,  devoted  to  laying  the  groundwork  of  the  specialty,  which 
corresponds  to  the  later  high-school  and  the  early  college  years, 
in  which  electives  enable  a  student  to  select  the  group  of  sub- 
jects which  will  be  the  best  foundation  for  any  given  profes- 
sion, as,  for  example,  the  selection  of  history,  language,  political 
science,  etc.,  for  prospective  students  in  the  law  school ;  and  (3) 
the  intensive  and  relatively  narrow  specialization  in  the  chosen 
profession.  This  last  period  is  believed  to  be  of  prime  impor- 
tance for  the  professional  man.  It  is  practically  impossible  for 
any  considerable  number  to  secure  satisfactory  entrance  to  the 
professions  without  it. 

The  plan  which  we  have  outlined  will  make  it  possible  to  give 
to  the  students  in  all  of  the  four  divisions  something  analogous 
to  this  complete  training  for  the  professions.  Here  the  time 
element  must  be  taken  into  account.  After  it  is  learned  ivhat 
ainotmt  of  time  the  student  has  at  his  disposal  it  should  then  be 
proportionately  divided  between  these  three  general  subdivisions 
found  to  be  so  essential  to  the  professional  man  :  first,  the 
broad  general  training ;  second,  a  preparation  in  the  group  of 
studies  which  will  form  the  best  groundwork  for  his  specialty ; 
third,  a  brief  period  of  intensive  specialization  which  will  pre- 
pare him  for  a  successful  entry  upon  his  chosen  vocation. 

The  fact  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  entry  upon 
a  vocation  without  special  training  of  some  kind  is  becoming 
more  and  more  difficult,  and  the  attempt  to  make  such  an  entry 
without  this  special  training,  and  without  guidance  and  advice, 
is  attended  with  difficulties  and  grave  dangers  which  the  schools 
have  too  long  ignored. 

While  it  is  believed  that  the  plan  outlined  would  be  broad 
enough,  if  adequately  carried  out,  to  embrace  the  two  following 


A  PLAN  FOR  IMMEDIATE  REORGANIZATION      69 

types  of  schools,  it  is  certain  that  under  present  conditions 
there  is  a  demand  for  the  intermediate  industrial  school  and 
for  the  trade  school. 

Until  retardation  has  been  effectually  prevented  or  greatly 
reduced,  there  is  need  of  courses  similar  to  the  differentiated 
seventh-  and  eighth-grade  courses,  but  open  to  any  boy  or  girl 
thirteen  years  of  age  or  over  who  is  in  or  below  the  sixth 
grade.  These  are  sometimes  called  separate  or  intermediate 
industrial  schools. 

In  addition,  it  is  probable  that  another  type  is  needed,  and 
this  might  be  called  a  trade  school.  There  are  few  public  trade 
schools  in  the  country,  but  they  fill  a  distinct  place.  Trade  schools 
should  be  open  to  boys  and  girls  of  sixteen  years  of  age,  should 
emphasize  the  development  of  skill,  and  should  lead  very  directly 
to  some  particular  trade. 

In  certain  localities  part-time  cooperative  courses  are  the  most 
effective  means  of  giving  a  thorough  industrial  training.  As 
mentioned  in  a  former  chapter,  they  have  their  peculiar  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages,  but  they  should  be  promoted  wherever 
conditions  are  favorable  both  to  the  cause  of  labor  and  the  cause 
of  education. 

Continuation  schools,  both  day  and  evening,  are  also  to  be 
desired,  the  former  for  apprentices  and  the  latter  for  adults. 

These  in  no  way  affect  our  plan  except  that  they  furnish  at 
all  points  another  educational  opportunity  for  those  entering 
upon  their  industrial  life.  They  do  not  obviate  the  necessity  for 
any  part  of  the  complete  scheme. 

Finally,  it  is  not  expected  that  the  child  will  be  left  to  find 
his  own  way  in  the  maze  which  this  plan  spreads  out  before  him. 
Vocational  guidance  is  a  concomitant  of  vocational  education. 
By  a  skillful  combination  of  the  wisdom,  interest,  and  experience 
of  the  parent,  teacher,  and  employer  it  is  possible  to  base  such 
guidance  upon  principles  approaching  a  science. 


yo         EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

This  involves,  first,  the  giving  of  imformation  about  vocations 
in  general  and  about  the  particular  opportunities  for  work  in  the 
immediate  vicinity,  and  also  about  the  opportunities  afforded 
by  the  several  schools  for  giving  adequate  training  for  these 
positions.  This  will  be  based  on  information  carefully  selected 
and  collated  and  made  available  for  intelligent  use.  Such  infor- 
mation might  be  so  arranged  as  to  show  at  a  glance  just  what 
was  involved  in  the  preparation  for  a  given  vocation  in  terms  of 
years,  money,  and  effort,  and  what  characteristics  were  needed  in 
the  individual  for  success  therein. 

Next  comes  assistance  in  placing  the  pupil  when  the  tran- 
sition from  school  to  work  must  be  made.  At  this  time  he 
needs  to  be  shown  the  advisability  of  taking  a  position  suited 
to  his  tastes  and  his  peculiar  qualifications,  and  one  which  of- 
fers an  opportunity  for  advancement,  even  though  at  the  outset 
it  may  not  be  so  attractive  as  some  other  which  pays  a  larger 
initial  wage. 

And  finally,  the  young  worker  should  receive  sympathetic 
supervision  and  counseling  subsequent  to  his  entry  into  his  new 
work.  This  is  a  most  trying  time  for  many  a  boy  and  girl,  and 
should  be  given  most  careful  attention. 

There  is  need  for  specially  trained  assistants  in  all  this  work. 

It  will  almost  certainly  be  contended  by  some  that  all  this 
involves  the  formation  of  plans  by  parents  and  children  at  a 
much  earlier  age  than  is  possible  or  desirable.  It  should  be 
noted  that  this  is  merely  an  opinion,  and  that  there  is  little 
or  no  available  material  either  to  refute  or  to  substantiate  it. 
A  preliminary  investigation  is  now  being  made  which  may 
throw  some  light  on  the  question.  As  this  book  goes  to  press 
the  returns  have  not  been  so  thoroughly  studied  as  to  warrant 
a  definite  statement,  but  the  plan  of  investigation  and  the  im- 
pressions received  from  information  thus  far  available  may  be 
of  interest. 


A  PLAN  FOR  IMMEDIATE  REORGANIZATION      71 

The  following  letter  and  questions  have  been  submitted  to 
schools  in  Denver,  Colorado ;  Springfield,  Illinois  ;  Cincinnati 
and  Youngstown,  Ohio ;  Indianapolis,  Indiana ;  Dandridge, 
Tennessee ;   and  Chicago,  Illinois. 

(Sent  to  superintendents  or  school  principals) 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CHICAGO 

Dear  Sir: 

We  are  making  an  investigation,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  determine 
whether  any  considerable  number  of  parents  have  formed  definite  plans  for 
the  future  education  of  their  children  by  the  time  the  child  has  reached  his 
thirteenth  year,  and,  further,  to  learn  whether  parents  are  willing  to  divulge 
such  plans  and  to  cooperate  with  the  schools  in  selecting  the  best  studies 
consistent  with  them. 

The  schools  have  very  generally  proceeded  on  the  assumption  that  these 
facts  could  not  be  ascertained  in  enough  cases  to  warrant  any  differentiation 
in  courses  of  study  based  on  such  information.  Even  if  the  investigation 
does  nothing  more  than  to  confirm  this  belief,  it  will  be  worth  the  making, 
but  it  is  hoped  that  something  much  more  positive  will  result. 

[Signed] 

(Blank  given  to  teachers  for  distribution) 

QUESTIONS  TO  BE  ASKED  OF  PARENTS  OF  ALL  CHILDREN 
BETWEEN  TWELVE  AND  THIRTEEN  YEARS  OF  AGE 


How  much  longer  are  you  planning  to  send  your>^  daughter  K°  school  ? 

(Mark  answer  with  an  x.) 

TilH    ,     Vis  fourteen  years  of  age. 

TilK   ,     Vis  sixteen  years  of  age. 

Tilu   V    [-completes  the  course  in  the  elementary  school. 

TilH   v    Vcompletes  the  course  in  the  high  school. 


Other  classifications.. 


2.    If  the  boy  or  girl  is  to  leave  school  at  fourteen,  what  work  do  you  expect 
that  he  or  she  will  take  up  ? 


72  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

QUESTIONS  TO  BE  ASKED  OF  TEACHERS 

1.  If  not  clearly  indicated  above,  is  the  child  reported  on  this  blank  a  boy 

or  a  girl  ? 

2.  What  will  be  the  age  of  the  child  in  September,  191 1  ? 


3.    If  not  withdrawn  from  school,  when  would  you  expect  the  child  to 
graduate  from  the  elementary  school  ?    Indicate  below. 

f  February  f  February  f  February  f  February 

'9'2|ju„e  '9i3|june  '9'4|june  '9is|june 

It  is  quite  evident  that  the  results  of  this  preUminary  investi- 
gation cannot  be  taken  as  conclusive,  but  they  seem  to  furnish 
some  evidence  that  parents  are  willing  to  cooperate  with  the 
school  authorities  in  the  important  matter  of  adapting  education 
to  time  limitations  where  such  limitations  exist. 

In  fact  it  appears  to  the  author  that  this  willingness  to  co- 
operate is  more  marked  on  the  part  of  the  parents  than  it  is  in 
the  case  of  the  typical  school  principal.  The  chief  obstacle  to  the 
investigation  seems  to  have  been  the  attitude  of  the  principals. 
They  say,  "  We  are  not  much  interested  in  vocational  education 
in  our  school,"  or  ""  How  can  a  boy  of  thirteen  know  what  he 
wants  to  do  .-* "  or  "Parents  do  not  know  what  they  will  do  re- 
garding the  education  of  their  children,  and  they  would  not  tell 
you  if  they  did."  Others  feel  that  "  the  parents  are  incapable  of 
filling  out  the  blanks  intelligently."  Nevertheless  one  principal, 
in  a  predominantly  foreign  district,  secured  fairly  trustworthy 
replies  in  essentially  every  case.  He  was  able  to  demonstrate  the 
fact  that  25  per  cent  of  his  twelve-  to  thirteen-year-old  pupils 
were  to  receive  but  two  more  years  of  schooling. 

From  an  examination  of  the  returns  it  appears  that  a  consid- 
erable number  of  parents  are  willing  to  state,  when  the  child 
is  between  twelve  and  thirteen  years  of  age,  that  his  schooling 
is  to  terminate  at  fourteen,  or  as  soon  as  the  law  permits.  It  is, 
of  course,  entirely  possible  that  some  of  these  parents   may 


A  PLAN  FOR  IMMEDIATE  REORGANIZATION      73 

reconsider  the  question  and  keep  the  child  in  school  for  one  or 
two  years  more,  but  this  very  desirable  decision  will  be  reached 
more  frequently  when  the  schools  make  some  concessions  to 
the  needs  of  the  early  workers. 

It  is  believed  that  one  or  more  of  the  features  of  the  plan 
outlined  in  this  chapter  will  be  found  effective  in  meeting  the 
needs  of  pupils  of  this  type. 

An  examination  of  the  chart  (p.  65)  will  show  graphically  the 
several  features  of  the  plan,  and  the  descriptions  of  the  various 
schools  and  classes  given  in  the  following  chapters  are  illus- 
trative of  one  or  another  of  these  features.  It  will  be  seen  that 
taken  together  they  form  as  complete  a  plan  as  the  one  here 
outlined.  While  no  city  in  the  country  has  yet  evolved  such 
a  complete  system,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  perfectly  feasible  to 
do  so,  since  each  feature  of  it  has  been  put  into  successful  opera- 
tion somewhere. 

It  is  felt  that  a  study  of  these  several  examples  of  industrial 
education  will  furnish  the  strongest  arguments  in  their  favor. 

It  is  the  author's  intent,  therefore,  to  give,  in  the  remaining 
chapters,  descriptions  and  brief  historical  sketches  of  typical 
schools  and  to  interpret  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  instruc- 
tion given  in  them.  In  most  instances  he  has  personally  visited 
and  studied  the  schools  described,  although  liberal  use  has  been 
made  of  the  published  statements  of  those  directly  responsible 
for  their  management. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  all  the  existing  exam- 
ples of  industrial  education,  though  it  is  believed  that  no  con- 
spicuous instance  of  an  original  and  important  contribution  by  a 
public  school  has  been  omitted. 

Bjilletin  No.  II  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Industrial  Education  gives  a  descriptive  list  of  trade  and  indus- 
trial schools  in  the  United  States.  While  this  list  is  more  com- 
plete than  the  one  given  herewith,  it  omits,  as  not  falling  within 


74  EXAMPLES  OK  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

the  scope  of  the  work  of  the  society,  several  experiments  which 
the  author  beHeves  lie  at  the  very  foundation  of  the  larger 
conception  of  the  movement  for  vocational  education.  These 
experiments  are  classified  as  "prevocational,"  and,  as  the  term 
indicates,  they  deal  with  the  period  preceding  that  in  which  a 
real  vocational  training  is  possible  or  desirable.  As  such  schools 
furnish  a  suitable  foundation  for  vocational  education,  and  espe- 
cially as  they  succeed  in  interesting  in  such  education  pupils 
who  would  otherwise  be  lost  to  the  school  system  altogether, 
their  vocational  significance  is  not  to  be  questioned.  It  is  there- 
fore believed  that  they  may  very  properly  be  included  in  this 
study  of  industrial  schools.  Some  of  these  experiments  are  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  X. 


CHAPTER  IX 

EXAMPLES  OF  MORE  FUNDAMENTAL  REORGANIZATION 

In  the  preceding  chapter  a  plan  was  proposed  for  meeting 
the  immediate  needs  of  the  present  generation  of  school  children 
without  modifying,  in  any  radical  way,  the  prevailing  systems 
of  school  organization.  Everything  suggested  therein  might  be 
put  into  operation  and  still  leave  untouched  the  common  divi- 
sion into  elementary  and  secondary  schools  of  eight  and  four 
years  respectively,  and  the  present  practice  of  grading  on  aver- 
ages and  of  advancing  the  pupils  by  yearly  or  semiannual  pro- 
motions based  on  such  grading. 

It  is  not  to  be  doubted,  however,  that  widespread  dissatisfaction 
exists  among  educators  with  what  are  seen  to  be  purely  artificial 
distinctions  and  inconsequential  practices.  More  clearly  formu- 
lated purposes  are  determining  the  selection  of  subject  matter, 
the  adoption  of  methods  of  instruction,  and  particularly  the 
formulation  of  plans  of  grading  and  promotion.  In  all  parts 
of  the  country  this  dissatisfaction  is  indicated  by  the  thoughtful 
experiments  which  are  being  inaugurated  in  school  manage- 
ment. In  the  following  pages  a  few  of  these  experiments  are 
briefly  described. 

It  has  been  recognized  that  retardation  lies  very  near  the 
source  of  those  peculiar  educational  ills  which  it  is  the  purpose 
of  industrial  training,  especially  that  proposed  for  the  elementary 
grades,  to  cure. 

All  efforts  to  reduce  preventable  retardation  are  worthy  of 
careful  study.  Wherever  "  special  classes,"  so  called,  classes 
for  mental  defectives  or  delinquents,  or  ungraded  classes  of  any 

75 


76  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

description,  are  organized,  this  desirable  end  is  brought  nearer 
realization.  These  classes,  however,  are  so  commonly  found  in 
school  systems  to-day  that  no  detailed  mention  of  them  need 
be  made. 

The  methods  of  grading  and  the  plans  of  promotion  briefly 
described  below  are  suggestive  of  still  further  progress  in  this 
direction.  No  attempt  is  made  to  treat  the  subject  exhaustively 
or  chronologically,  but  merely  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the 
educational  opportunity  of  the  industrial  worker  can  be  advanced 
quite  as  effectively  by  saving  "  two  wasted  years  "  before  four- 
teen as  by  devising  special  schools  and  methods  for  caring  for 
retarded  children  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age.    , 

The  grading  system  has  been  quite  generally  based  on  the 
supposition  that  a  certain  amount  of  school  work  should  be 
accomplished  in  a  definite  period,  and  the  unit  of  time  has 
commonly  been  one  year.  Under  this  system  the  pupil  who  is 
"  retarded  "  usually,  albeit  with  numerous  individual  exceptions, 
repeats  the  entire  year's  work. 

While  in  many  cities  promotions  are  now  made  semiannually, 
and  elements  of  flexibility  are  being  introduced  into  school  grad- 
ing generally,  it  is  probably  within  the  facts  to  consider  yearly 
promotions  to  be  the  plan  which  commonly  obtains  in  the 
United  States. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts 

The  well-known  "'  Cambridge  Experiment "  has  been  in  oper- 
ation in  that  city  for  nearly  twenty  years.  It  permits  pupils  of 
varying  abilities  to  pass  through  the  "'  grammar  "  school  by  one 
or  another  of  four  different  ways,  requiring  from  four  to  six 
years  respectively.  This  is  done  without  "  skipping  "  a  grade  or 
receiving  '"  double  promotion," 

This  is  accomplished  by  arranging  three  courses  of  study,  A, 
B,  and  C,  planned  to  cover  the  total  amount  of  work  normally 


MORE  FUNDAMENTAL  REORGANIZATION         ^^ 

done  in  the  last  six  years  of  the  elementary  school,  in  four,  five, 
or  six  years  respectively,  by  conducting  classes  along  each  course 
and  by  providing  for  transfers  from  one  to  another  at  inter- 
mediate points.  This  plan  has  not  only  resulted  in  reducing  the 
percentage  of  pupils  who  take  more  than  the  allotted  time  to 
complete  the  elementary-school  course,  but  also  in  enabling  a 
considerable  number  to  do  the  entire  work  of  the  school  with 
a  saving  of  one  or  even  two  years  from  the  normal  six. 

St.  Louis,  Missouri 

In  St.  Louis  the  school  year  is  divided  into  four  quarters, 
each  quarter  being  ten  weeks  in  length.  Where  the  schools  are 
sufficiently  large  it  is  possible  to  have  a  class  corresponding  to 
each  quarter.  By  this  arrangement  contiguous  classes  are  rarely 
more  than  ten  weeks  apart,  and  frequently  are  less.  At  the 
end  of  each  quarter  the  pupils  are  graded,  receiving  marks  of 
Excellent,  Good,  Moderate,  Conditioned,  or  Failed. 

A  pupil  who  continuously  receives  the  highest  grade,  "  Ex- 
cellent," is  usually  given  the  opportunity  of  attempting  the  work 
of  the  class  immediately  in  advance,  making  up  such  work  as 
may  be  necessary. 

A  pupil  who  receives  the  grade  "  Failed  "  repeats  the  work 
of  the  quarter  with  the  class  immediately  below  the  one  in  which 
he  failed.  Even  if  he  is  unable  to  recover  the  ground  thus  lost, 
he  has  added  but  ten  weeks  to  the  time  required  to  complete 
the  course. 

Class  promotions  are  made  four  times  a  year,  and  the  com- 
paratively short  intervals  between  classes  permit  individual  pro- 
motions at  any  time. 

The  plan  has  been  in  operation  for  many  years,  and  is  be- 
lieved to  be  instrumental  in  lessening  the  amount  of  repetition 
in  passage  through  the  grades.  This  opinion  seems  to  be  sus- 
tained by  Dr.  Ayres's  estimate  ("  Laggards  in  Our  Schools,"  p.  87) 


78  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

that  the  average  number  of  years  for  completing  the  eight  grades 
in  St.  Louis  is  8.98,  thus  placing  this  city  well  toward  the  head 
of  the  list  of  the  twenty-nine  cities  investigated. 

Portland,  Oregon 

Another  city  which  stands  well  up  in  the  above-mentioned 
list  is  Portland,  Oregon.  Regarding  grading  and  promotions  in 
the  schools  of  that  city  Mr.  Frank  Rigler,  city  superintendent 
of  schools,  in  his  report  for  19 10,  says  : 

In  the  earliest  schools  teaching  was  addressed  to  individuals,  not  classes. 
Each  pupil  recited  in  his  turn  from  his  own  book.  It  soon  became  clear  to 
teachers  that  time  might  be  saved  by  teaching  a  group  of  several  pupils  to- 
gether. This  was  the  beginning  of  classification,  and  out  of  this  simple 
arrangement  developed  all  the  systems  of  classification  now  in  existence. 
But  while  class  teaching  began  as  a  matter  of  economy  of  time,  it  was  soon 
found  to  possess  other  points  of  advantage  over  individual  teaching.  Its 
chief  superiority  is  due  to  the  fact  that  new  ideas  find  different  attachments 
in  different  minds,  because  of  differences  in  antecedent  experience.  This 
causes  a  different  point  of  view  for  each  pupil  in  the  class,  hence  the  at- 
trition and  liveliness  of  a  well-conducted  class  recitation. 

In  the  formation  of  classes  in  a  modern  school  several  things  must  be 
considered,  first  among  them  the  size  of  the  class.  It  has  been  said  by  an 
innovator  that  one  teacher  may  instruct  a  class  of  eighty  or  one  hundred 
just  as  easily  as  a  smaller  number,  because  a  presentation  good  for  one  is 
good  for  all  within  the  sound  of  the  teacher's  voice.  The  fallacy  of  this 
view  is  apparent  when  we  reflect  that  it  is  not  only  the  teacher's  duty  to 
present  her  subject  to  a  class,  but  also  to  note  the  effect  of  such  presentation 
upon  each  individual  in  her  presence.  No  teacher  can  perform  this  latter 
function  if  she  has  to  address  one  hundred  pupils.  Those  who  can  perform 
it  with  a  class  of  forty  pupils  are  comparatively  few.  Those  who  can  notice 
the  effect  of  teaching  upon  twenty  are  many  times  more  numerous.  Per- 
haps somewhere  between  fifteen  and  twenty-five  is  the  ideal  number  to  be 
engaged  in  any  recitation,  and  this  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  in  the  modem 
elementary  schoolroom  there  should  be  two  classes,  one  of  which  is  study- 
ing while  the  other  is  reciting.  Besides  having  the  right  number  engaged 
in  a  recitation,  an  ideal  classification  would  require  that  their  attainments 
and  their  powers  be  exactly  equal.  It  is  not  possible,  of  course,  to  obtain 
this  ideal  classification,  but  when  instruction  addressed  to  the  class  seems 


MORE  FUNDAMENTAL  REORGANIZATION         79 

trivial  to  the  top,  or  unintelligible  to  those  at  the  bottom,  the  classification 
is  bad  and  ought  to  be  changed.  Practical  classification,  in  what  are  ac- 
counted good  schools  of  the  present  day,  lies  somewhere  between  these 
two  extremes.  The  fact  that  the  classification  is  not  ideal  requires  it  to  be 
supplemented  by  individual  teaching.  It  is  noticed  by  the  alert  teacher  that 
the  assignment,  study,  and  recitation  of  a  lesson  have  not  produced  the 
desired  effect  upon  certain  pupils  of  the  class.  Therefore  such  efforts  must 
be  supplemented  by  individual  work.  While  it  has  always  been  the  prac- 
tice in  most  schools  to  recognize  this  function  of  individual  teaching,  yet  in 
some  parts  of  the  country,  notably  Batavia,  New  York,  there  has  been, 
within  the  past  decade,  a  revival  of  interest  and  emphasis  upon  this  very 
important  matter.  Other  things  being  equal,  it  is  desirable  that  a  class  or- 
ganization, when  once  formed,  should  remain  fixed  for  a  considerable  period 
of  time.  The  fact  that  only  equality  of  attainments  is  considered  when  mak- 
ing up  classes  tends  to  defeat  this  desirable  end,  for  that  part  of  the  class 
having  the  greater  mental  power  draws  rapidly  away  from  the  other  part. 
So  whether  there  be  a  formal  division  or  not,  there  must  be  a  practical  divi- 
sion made  by  the  teacher,  by  addressing  one  part  of  the  instruction  to  the 
upper  half  of  the  class,  and  the  other  part  to  the  lower  half.  In  fact,  I 
have  heard  teachers  themselves  classified  as  teachers  of  leaders  and  teachers 
of  trailers,  according  to  the  proportion  of  the  time  that  they  devoted  to 
the  two  groups  into  which  an  ordinary  class  tends  to  divide. 

The  Portland  system  of  classification  prevents  this  disintegration  of 
classes  by  taking  into  consideration  power  as  well  as  attainment  when 
classes  are  formed. 

The  course  of  study  is  divided  into  fifty-four  parts,  numbered  continu- 
ously from  one  to  fifty -four.  The  time  is  divided  into  terms  of  five  months 
each,  promotions  taking  place  regularly  at  the  end  of  each  term.  Three 
terms,  or  one  and  one-half  years,  constitute  what  we  for  convenience  call 
a  cycle.  Classes  are  permitted  to  progress  at  whatever  rate  is  found  suit- 
able to  their  powers,  but  the  two  standard  rates  are  three  parts  per  term 
for  second  divisions  and  four  parts  per  term  for  first  divisions. 

The  normal  class  interval  at  the  beginning  of  a  cycle  is  three  parts  of 
the  course  of  study,  measured  not  in  time  but  in  work.  In  large  schools 
the  class  interval  is  often  only  two  parts  of  the  course,  sometimes  in  the 
lower  classes  only  one  part  of  the  course. 

At  the  beginning  of  each  cycle  any  group  of  pupils  who  have  reached 
the  same  point  in  the  course  of  study  is  separated  into  a  first  and  second 
division.  By  the  end  of  the  first  term  the  first  divisions  will  have  passed 
over  four  parts  of  the  course  of  study,  and  the  second  divisions  over  only 
three.    By  the  end  of  the  second  term  the  first  divisions  will  have  passed 


8o  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

over  eight  parts  of  the  course  of  study,  and  the  second  divisions  over  only 
six.  At  the  end  of  the  third  term  the  first  divisions  will  have  advanced  twelve 
parts,  and  the  second  divisions  only  nine.  It  will  be  seen  now  that  each  first 
division  has  overtaken  the  second  division  next  above  it.  In  the  new  cycle 
these  two  divisions  are  united  and  again  divided.  In  this  redivision  some 
of  the  pupils  that  did  first-division  work  during  the  preceding  cycle  are 
put  into  a  second  division,  and  some  who  did  second-division  work  are  put 
into  a  first  division. 

While  the  normal  cycle  is  a  period  of  three  terms,  and  while  most  of 
the  overtaking  and  rcdividing  is  done  at  the  end  of  these  cycles,  neverthe- 
less in  large  schools  where  the  interval  between  some  of  the  classes  is  only 
two  parts  of  the  course,  the  second  divisions  are  overtaken  in  two  terms. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  smaller  schools,  the  class  interval  is  sometimes  four 
parts  of  the  course  of  study,  and  the  cycle  is  extended  to  four  terms.  At 
the  close  of  each  term,  occasionally  during  the  course  of  a  term,  there  is 
some  overtaking  and  redividing  to  be  done.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  in  a 
thirty-room  building  the  class  interval  for  the  first  ten  rooms  could  be  made 
one  part,  for  the  next  fifteen  rooms  two  parts,  and  for  the  highest  five 
rooms  three  parts,  of  the  course. 

In  every  schoolroom  there  are  two  divisions  progressing  at  different 
rates.  Where  the  more  advanced  is  a  first  division  the  classes  are  said  to 
be  diverging,  that  is,  the  interval  between  them  is  "  increasing."  Early  in 
the  cycle  this  is  the  condition  in  most  schoolrooms,  but  in  the  third  term  of 
the  cycle  we  try,  as  far  as  possible,  to  have  first  divisions  roomed  with  second 
divisions  which  are  in  advance  of  them.  Such  classes  are  said  to  be  "  con- 
verging," that  is,  the  interval  between  them  is  diminishing. 

In  the  exigencies  of  rooming  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  up  a 
"  division  "  by  taking  the  stronger  members  of  a  first  division  and  classing 
them  with  the  weaker  ones  of  a  second  division,  who  are  one  or  one  and 
one-half  parts  in  advance  of  them.  In  such  cases  the  division  commences 
its  work  at  the  point  already  reached  by  its  stronger  members.  The  interval 
of  one  or  one  and  one-half  parts  can  thus  be  passed  over  very  rapidly, 
being  review  for  the  weak  ones  and  new  work  for  very  strong  pupils. 

Such  emergency  divisions,  however,  do  not  usually  continue  more  than 
a  term.  By  that  time  the  strong  pupils  have  outstripped  the  weak  and  they 
are  then  classed  with  the  strongest  members  of  the  same  second  divisions 
whose  weaker  members  they  have  just  passed,  their  place  being  taken  by 
the  middle  section  of  the  same  division. 

An  important  feature  of  our  system  of  classification  is  promotion  by 
subjects  instead  of  by  "  averages."  A  pupil  may  do  first-division  work 
in  one  subject  and  second-division  work  in  another.    Sometimes  he  will 


MORE  FUNDAMENTAL  REORGANIZATION         8 1 

have  to  recite  part  of  his  work  in  one  room  and  part  in  another,  but 
no  inconvenience  need  result  from  this.  In  fact,  it  is  an  advantage  in 
rooming,  as  we  can  make  his  headquarters  in  the  less  crowded  of  the 
two  rooms. 

This  system  of  classification  and  promotion  was  introduced  into  the 
schools  of  Portland  in  1897,  and  has  been  in  operation  continuously  since 
that  time.  Before  its  introduction  we  used  the  orthodox  eight-grade  system 
with  semiannual  promotion.  If  a  pupil  wished  to  go  faster  than  the  eight- 
year  rate,  he  might  take  a  term's  work  with  one  class  and  the  review  work 
with  the  next  higher  class.  Thus  in  a  term  of  five  months,  he  did  work 
that  was  intended  for  a  year.  It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  the  rate  at 
which  the  higher  term's  work  was  done,  under  these  conditions,  was  five 
times  as  fast  as  the  ordinary  rate  of  pupils ;  and  if  it  were  kept  up  continu- 
ously, a  pupil  would  finish  the  eight  grades  of  the  elementary  schools  in 
one  and  three-fifths  years.  The  result  of  such  a  system  was  that  very  few 
pupils  ever  did  more  than  the  normal  quantity  of  work,  and  those  who  did 
were  found  subsequently  to  be  deficient  in  the  ground  passed  over  with 
such  unwarranted  rapidity.  Then  again,  there  was  no  way  in  which  a  pupil 
could  take  a  lower  rate  than  the  orthodox  one,  without  failing  and  repeating 
the  work  of  a  term. 

If  I  understand  the  plan  pursued  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  and  one 
recently  mentioned  by  Dr.  Edison  under  the  head  of  plus  classes,  the  rate 
of  speed  for  first  classes  or  first  divisions  is  one  and  one-half  times  that  of 
the  slower  classes  or  second  divisions.  If  this  rate  were  continued  through- 
out the  course,  it  would  cause  the  first  division  to  complete  the  work  of  the 
elementary  schools  in  five  and  one-third  years,  the  slower  ones  doing  it  in 
the  orthodox  eight  years.  Now,  under  the  Pordand  plan,  a  pupil  who 
does  first-division  work  during  his  entire  life  in  the  elementary  school  will 
be  prepared  for  high-school  work  in  seven  years.  A  pupil  who  does  second- 
division  work  all  the  time  will  require  nine  years  to  complete  the  elemen- 
tary course.  We  find  that  perhaps  a  third  of  the  pupils  require  this  time, 
and  they  get  it-  with  us,  not  by  failing  once  or  twice  and  repeating  some 
particular  part  of  the  course,  but  by  doing  somewhat  less  work  each  term 
for  the  entire  nine  years.  Our  first  division  proceeds  one  and  one-third 
times  as  rapidly  as  our  second  division,  or  one  and  one-eighth  times  as 
rapidly  as  the  normal  class  in  the  orthodox  eight-grade  system. 

Fully  half  of  our  pupils  are  able  to  maintain  this  rate  throughout  the 
course,  without  detriment  to  their  health  and  without  much  home  study. 
A  considerable  number  do  part  first-division  and  part  second-division  work, 
and  thus  complete  the  elementary  course  in  seven  and  one-half,  eight,  or 
eight  and  one-half  years. 


82  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Menomonie,  Wisconsin 

In  Menomonie  the  system  of  grading,  from  the  fifth  grade 
through  the  high  school,  is  not  vitally  related  to  the  plan  of 
promotion. 

Pupils  are  graded  every  six  weeks  and  in  each  subject,  the 
"  grade  "  indicating  the  position  of  the  pupil  with  relation  to  the 
class  average  in  that  subject.  If  the  pupil  falls  a  certain  per- 
centage below  the  class  average,  successively,  in  a  subject,  he  is 
required  to  take  the  work  in  that  subject  with  the  next  lower 
section.  Such  a  pupil  may  carry  the  work  of  the  grade  from 
which  he  has  just  fallen,  if  he  is  able  to  do  so,  and  may  be  re- 
instated at  the  end  of  the  six  weeks,  provided  he  can  reach  the 
required  standing  in  the  subject.  The  superintendent,  Mr.  George 
A.  Works,  states  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  pupils 
recover  their  grade  during  the  six  weeks'  trial  period. 

The  plan  gives  an  equal  opportunity  to  the  able  pupil  to 'carry 
additional  work  in  the  class  just  in  advance.  It  is  obvious  that 
this  plan  requires  a  departmental  system,  and  would  therefore 
be  of  questionable  expediency  for  earlier  grades. 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Beginning  with  the  summer  of  1 9  ii ,  the  entire  school  system 
of  Cleveland  was  reorganized  on  a  quarterly  plan  of  four  terms 
of  approximately  three  months  each,  there  being  only  a  brief 
vacation  between  the  quarters. 

While  this  reorganization  involves  many  educational  questions, 
it  is  of  interest  in  this  connection  because  the  schools  were  open, 
during  the  first  summer  quarter,  only  to  pupils  who  were  below 
grade.  There  were  about  ten  thousand  such  pupils  in  the  city, 
about  five  thousand  of  whom  enrolled  for  the  summer  quarter. 
This,  therefore,  may  properly  be  considered  another  plan  for 
reducing  retardation. 


MORE  FUNDAMENTAL  REORGANIZATION         83 

Chicago,  Illinois 

Experiments  intended  to  reduce  the  amount  of  retardation 
in  both  the  elementary  and  the  high  school  were  inaugurated  in 
the  Chicago  public  schools  in  the  summer  of  191 1. 

There  were  administered  in  connection  with  three  of  the  va- 
cation schools,  although  in  a  measure  independently  of  them, 
what  were  styled  "  Review  Schools."  Classes  were  formed  for 
Grades  5,  6,  7,  and  8,  and  were  open  to  children  recommended 
by  principals  of  the  elementary  schools. 

To  be  eligible  for  membership  in  these  classes  a  child  must 
have  failed  of  promotion  the  preceding  year,  but  also  must  have 
shown  some  ability  to  recover  his  grade  by  the  extra  work  of  the 
summer  session.  The  measure  of  success  was  to  be  determined 
by  an  examination  given  by  the  principal  of  the  elementary 
school  on  the  return  of  the  children  in  September. 

Three  such  review  schools  were  in  session  for  six  weeks  of 
the  summer  vacation,  on  four  mornings  a  week  from  nine  till 
twelve  o'clock. 

Wendell  Phillips  High  School 

Summer  high-school  classes,  for  pupils  who  had  failed  in 
one  or  more  studies  during  the  preceding  year,  were  organized 
in  the  Wendell  Phillips  High  School. 

The  classes  received  two  lessons  a  day  in  each  subject,  with 
a  study  hour  between,  and  were  thus  enabled,  with  ten  recitations 
a  week,  to  cover  in  five  weeks  the  work  of  a  quarter,  or  what 
amounted  to  a  complete  review  of  a  semester's  work. 

No  pupil  was  permitted  to  enter  the  school  for  the  purpose 
of  doing  advanced  work. 

Partly  as  an  experiment,  and  partly  because  of  financial  con- 
ditions, a  tuition  fee  of  ten  dollars  was  charged  each  pupil.  This 
fact  is  thought  to  have  some  bearing  on  the  measure  of  success 


84  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

attending  the  venture.  Two  hundred  and  ten  pupils  were  reg- 
istered in  these  classes  and  89  per  cent  passed  in  one  or  more 
subjects. 

The  tuition  fee  practically  covered  all  expenses. 

It  is  expected  that  the  review  schools  will  become  an  integral 
part  of  the  Chicago  school  system. 

Berkeley,  California 

The  plan  of  organization  described  below  has  been  in  op- 
eration in  the  Berkeley  schools  for  two  years  with  marked  and 
salutary  effect  on  the  retention  of  pupils. 

The  units  of  the  school  system  are  three  in  number  instead  of 
the  conventional  two.  The  first,  the  elementary  school,  com- 
prises the  first  six  years ;  the  second,  the  lower  high  school, 
the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  years;  and  the  third,  the  upper 
high  school,  the  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  years. 

While  satisfactory  completion  of  the  work  of  the  first  or  second 
unit  confers  eligibility  for  the  next  higher  grade,  the  main  em- 
phasis is  not  placed  on  preparation  with  the  higher  school  as  a 
goal.  Instead,  the  work  of  each  unit  is  based  on  the  assumption 
that  all  the  children  anight  leave  school  at  the  end  of  that  par- 
ticular cycle  of  work.  Mr.  Frank  F.  Bunker,  superintendent  of 
city  schools,  says  that  he  is  willing  to  contend  that  such  a  plan 
results  "not  only  in  the  best  possible  preparation  for  those  who 
drop  out,  but  likewise  the  best  possible  preparation  for  those  who 
go  on  from  grade  to  grade,  finally  entering  the  university." 

In  a  report  to  the  Board  of  Education  recommending  the 
adoption  of  the  plan,  Mr.  Bunker  said  : 

An  examination  of  this  plan  will  convince  one,  I  think,  that  the  division 
of  the  grades  jnto  three  groups  is  a  much  more  natural  one  than  the  ar- 
rangement under  which  we  are  now  working,  with  a  division  of  the  grades 
into  two  groups  only. 

Statistics  show  that  the  masses  are  held  in  school  no  longer  than  through 
the  fifth  grade,  and  that  at  the  close  of  the  fifth  grade  they  drop  out  in  very 


MORE  FUNDAMENTAL  REORGANIZATION         85 

large  numbers,  which  means,  educationally,  that  whatever  is  to  be  taught  to 
the  masses  must  be  given  in  the  first  five  or  six  years. 

In  the  schools  comprising  this  group  of  the  first  six  years  I  would  have 
the  course  of  study  uniform  for  all  children  and  somewhat  narrow  in  its 
scope.  I  would  see  to  it  that  emphasis  is  placed  on  those  things  which  the 
masses  must  have  if  they  are  to  get  on  at  all.  I  would  see  to  it,  whether  or 
not  anything  else  were  got,  that  at  least  the  children  learn  how  to  read, 
how  to  write,  how  to  use  their  own  language,  both  orally  and  in  written  form, 
how  to  perform  with  facility  and  accuracy  the  simple  operations  of  arith- 
metic and  of  accounting,  and  I  would  also  see  to  it  that  in  these  first  six 
years  they  get  somewhat  of  a  sympathetic  knowledge  of  their  city,  state, 
and  national  government,  and  that  they  also  learn  the  elementary  things 
about  sanitation  and  health  conditions  which  everybody  needs  to  know,  not 
only  to  protect  themselves  as  individuals,  but  to  protect  society  as  well.  I 
would  select  from  the  corps  for  work  in  these  first  six  years,  teachers  who 
are  particularly  adapted  to  handling  children  of  this  early  age  and  to  incul- 
cating the  content  which  I  have  just  outlined. 

In  the  "  introductory  high  schools  "  there  would  be  congregated  the 
seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  years.  These  years  comprise  another  natural 
group,  inasmuch  as  children  would  enter  it  at  the  beginning  of  the  period 
of  adolescence,  when  by  nature  they  naturally  crave  an  opportunity  to  dip 
into  a  wide  range  of  subjects  and  activities,  which  is  Nature's  way  of  insuring 
a  freedom  of  choice  in  determining  occupation,  and  somewhat  of  intelligence 
in  the  same.  I  would  have  certain  prescribed  subjects  for  this  group,  but 
in  addition  thereto  would  permit  as  many  electives  as  possible,  thus  making 
it  unnecessary,  as  at  present,  for  every  child  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
to  take  exactly  the  same  work  as  every  other  child.  In  contrast  to  the  work 
of  the  first  six  years,  I  should  wish  to  see  the  work  of  this  group  made 
exceedingly  rich  in  content  and  variety,  and  particularly  in  human  interest.  I 
should  hope  to  see  the  work  of  this  group  relate  very  closely  to  life  and  be 
as  far  away  as  possible  from  that  which  is  purely  academic  in  education. 
I  should  wish  much  emphasis  placed  on  learning  how  to  study,  how  to  use 
the  library,  how  to  get  material  from  the  same  with  expedition  and  with  judg- 
ment. If  a  child  foresees  that  he  wants  to  take  German  or  Latin  in  the  high 
school  proper,  I  would  wish  him  to  begin  these  languages  when  he  enters 
this  group  and  thus  have  six  years  of  work  in  the  same  before  he  enters  col- 
lege instead  of  four,  according  to  our  present  arrangement.  I  should  wish 
to  see  the  work  of  this  group  shaped  up  to  make  a  more  easy  transition  from 
the  work  of  the  elementary  grades  to  the  departmental  work  of  the  high 
school.  In  line  with  this  I  should  wish  teachers  assigned  to  work  in  these 
grades  who  have  a  broad  culture  and  wide  experience  in  teaching  in  the  grades. 


86  KXAMPLKS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

By  an  arrangement  of  this  kind  it  would  seem  that  the  work  of  the 
high  school  proper  could  be  made  more  intensive  than  it  is  at  the  present 
time,  with  higher  standards  of  scholarship  and  more  rigid  requirements 
than  at  present  obtain,  and  without  working  any  hardship  upon  the  young 
people  who  enter  the  same ;  for  it  would  seem  that  if  this  work  which  I 
have  outlined  be  carefully  and  efficiently  done,  that  the  incoming  student 
will  have  developed  a  much  more  serious  attitude  toward  his  work  than 
obtains  at  the  present  time,  will  have  oriented  himself  better,  so  far  as  his 
subjects  are  concerned,  and  that  the  break  will  not  be  so  great  or  so  dis- 
couraging as  with  the  plan  under  which  we  are  now  working. 

It  is  evident  that  the  crucial  point  of  this  unique  organization 
is  to  be  found  in  the  lower  high  school,  and  the  plan  commends 
itself  for  the  reason  that  this  period  of  school  life  coincides  very 
closely  with  that  period  of  youth  which  is,  perhaps,  the  most  dif- 
ficult for  the  teacher  to  understand,  and,  therefore,  the  one  where 
the  pupils  suffer  most  from  misdirected  effort  on  their  own  part 
and  also  on  the  part  of  their  teachers.  In  this  system  of  schools 
the  major  purpose  of  the  intermediate  unit  is  one  of  adjustment. 

Among  other  opportunities  offered  in  this  "  trying-out " 
period  is  the  possibility  of  selecting  studies  which  appeal  to 
the  awakening  vocational  interests  of  some  of  the  pupila.  Thus 
far  the  vocational  subjects  offered  have  been  commercial  rather 
than  industrial,  but  in  such  a  community  as  Berkeley  this  is 
perhaps  all  that  could  reasonably  be  expected  in  the  second 
year  of  such  an  important  transition. 

Concord,  New  Hampshire 

The  reorganized  school  system  of  Concord  consists  of  three 
units  or  groups,  which  are  numbered  in  the  reverse  order  of 
the  grades  or  years  in  school. 

Group  3,  the  elementary  group,  comprises  the  first  six 
grades ;  Group  2,  the  lower  of  the  secondary  groups,  com- 
prises the  seventh  and  eighth  years ;  and  Group  i ,  the  ninth, 
tenth,  and  eleventh  years,  or  the  high  school  proper. 


MORE  FUNDAMENTAL  REORGANIZATION         d>'J 

The  plan  is  thus  similar  to  that  of  Berkeley,  with  the  im- 
portant difference  that,  by  the  Concord  plan,  an  attempt  is  made 
to  save  a  year's  time.  It  is  believed  that  this  is  made  possible 
by  eliminating  reduplication,  which  so  frequently  obtains  in  the 
last  elementary  and  the  first  high-school  year  of  the  traditional 
school  system. 

As  carried  out,  the  plan  actually  provides  greater  opportunity 
for  differentiation  than  is  found  in  Berkeley,  as  will  be  seen  by 
referring  to  the  course  of  study  for  191 1-1912  (see  pp.  88-90). 

In  commenting  on  the  plan  Mr.  Rundlett,  superintendent 
of  schools,  says : 

"  Through  the  first  six  years  of  this  course  the  studies  remain  practically 
uniform  for  all  pupils,  the  main  idea  being  to  teach  them  how  to  read,  to 
write,  to  use  the  mother  tongue  properly,  the  essentials  of  history  and 
geography,  how  to  take  care  of  their  bodies  and  to  live  in  cleanliness  and 
purity, —  in  short,  those  things  which  all  people  should  know  in  order  to 
make  the  best  use  of  their  lives.  Upon  completing  the  work  of  Group  3 
the  student  may  take  up  the  work  outlined  for  Group  2,  making  his  choice 
of  approved  high-school  courses  or  pursuing  still  farther  what  are  commonly 
called  the  three  R's. 

This  change  comes  at  a  time  in  the  pupil's  life  when  he  seeks  variety. 
If  he  forecasts  a  college  course,  he  may  have  five  years  of  study  instead  of 
four.  If  he  wishes  a  more  practical  course,  he  may  choose  a  commercial 
or  a  mechanic  arts  course.  In  these  grades  emphasis  will  be  placed  upon 
teaching  the  pupil  to  become  self-reliant,  how  to  study  as  well  as  how  to 
recite,  and  to  get  material  for  his  work  with  dispatch  and  with  good  judg- 
ment. He  will  be  introduced  to  departmental  teaching,  handled  by  teachers 
who  make  a  study  of  individual  natures,  and  have  the  approval  of  the  state 
department  as  being  qualified  for  the  work,  thus  securing  the  benefit  of 
teaching  backed  by  broad  culture  and  by  individual  grade  experience. 

In  the  high  school  proper,  Group  i,  advantage  will  be  manifest  in  a  de- 
creased enrollment,  so  that  the  general  atmosphere  will  be  relieved  of  the 
confusion  of  numbers. 

Eventually  more  rigid  requirements  and  better  standards  of  scholarship 
should  result,  because  entering  pupils  will  have  had  two  years  of  serious 
preparation  along  lines  of  high-school  work. 

This  scheme  is  combined  with  semiannual  promotion  throughout  the 
entire  course." 


88 


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MORE  FUNDAMENTAL  REORGANIZATION         91 

Gary,  Indiana 

While  most  educational  reforms  are  brought  about  gradually 
by  numerous  and  relatively  slight  modifications  of  existing  sys- 
tems, it  sometimes  happens  that  an  educationalinstitution  is  so 
situated  that  it  can  depart  radically  from  the  traditional  and  can 
organize  its  work  to  meet  its  own  conditions  without  reference 
to  precedent.  Such  a  school  would  be  difficult  to  "classify," 
but  would,  nevertheless,  richly  repay  careful  study. 

The  Emerson  School  of  Gary  is  such  an  institution.  It  has 
much  that  is  pertinent  to  every  phase  of  our  subject,  and,  in 
fact,  might  appropriately  be  mentioned  in  most  of  the  succeed- 
ing chapters  as  illustrative  of  the  several  types  described  therein. 
Perhaps  in  no  particular  is  it  more  noteworthy  than  in  the  pro- 
visions which  it  makes  for  securing  reasonable  and  continuous 
progress  of  its  pupils  from  the  first  grade  through  the  entire 
school.  In  fact  this  seems  to  be  the  central  thought  of  its 
unique  system. 

Partly  because  of  the  impossibility  of  considering  the  school 
or  its  work  along  vocational  lines,  under  the  classifications  which 
we  have  made,  a  description  of  it  cannot  here  be  given.  The 
student  of  education  is  referred,  however,  to  a  popular  article  in 
Hampton's  Magazine  for  July,  191 1,  entitled  "Keeping  the 
Children  in  School."  ^ 

Perhaps  one  cannot  wholly  agree  with  the  enthusiastic  writer 
of  the  article,  that  the  Emerson  School  "  is  the  educational 
center  of  the  United  States,  the  public  school  of  the  future," 
or  that  "  there  is  not  a  city  in  the  United  States  where  the 
Gary  system  could  not  be  applied  ";  and  one  must  entirely  dis- 
agree with  certain  criticisms  of  procedures  supposed  to  obtain 
in  "average"  schools,  but  a  sympathetic  reading  will  convince 

1  A  subsequent  report  of  the  school,  written  by  Dr.  John  F.  Bobbitt,  ap- 
peared in  The  Elementary  School  Teacher  (The  University  of  Chicago  Press), 
for  February,  191 2. 


92  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

the  most  conventional  and  conservative  that  here  is  an  unusually 
suggestive  example  of  popular  democratic  education. 

The  author  has  studied  the  Emerson  School  and  is  inclined 
to  think  that,  in  respect  to  its  cooperation  with  manufacturers 
and  labor  unions,  and  to  its  great  economy  of  effort,  of  space, 
and  especially  of  the  children's  time,  it  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable and  interesting  schools  which  he  has  ever  visited. 

Mr,  William  A.  Wirt,  superintendent  of  the  Gary  schools, 
says : 

The  school  program  is  so  arranged  that  during  each  morning  and  each 
afternoon  session  of  the  school  one  half  the  pupils  have  ninety  minutes  of 
work  in  the  regular  subjects, —  English,  history,  and  mathematics, —  followed 
by  ninety  minutes  of  work  in  the  special  subjects, —  manual  training,  science, 
drawing,  music,  play,  and  physical  culture.  The  remaining  pupils  have  the 
same  program  but  in  reverse  order,  the  regular  work  following  the  ninety 
minutes  of  special  work.  Thus  work  in  both  regular  and  special  subjects  is 
being  carried  on  continuously  during  the  day,  by  special  teachers  and  on 
the  departmental  plan,  as  far  as  desired,  in  either  group. 

A  child,  if  it  is  for  his  best  interest  to  do  so,  may  take  an  extra  amount 
of  regular  work  in  place  of  a  portion  of  the  special  work,  or  vice  versa.  Thus 
a  boy  who  has  failed  in  English  can  make  up  his  deficiency  by  going  into 
another  regular  English  class  during  his  special-work  period.  A  boy  whose 
interests  demand  that  he  be  given  more  time  in  manual  training  can  have  a 
maximum  of  three  hours  a  day  in  that  subject,  if  desirable,  during  the  reg- 
ular school  hours. 

The  regular  sessions  are  from  8.30  a.m.  to  12  M.  and  from  i  to  4  p.m. 
The  library,  playgrounds,  gymnasia,  swimming  pools,  shops,  and  laboratories 
are  open  for  two  hours  additional  time  during  the  five  school  days  and  for 
eight  hours  on  Saturday.  Thus  pupils  may  supplement  the  work  of  these 
departments  with  extra  work  out  of  regular  hours.  The  school  plant  is  also 
open  from  7.30  to  9.30  p.m.  for  continuation-school  and  social  and  recrea- 
tional activities.  Day-school  pupils,  by  special  permission,  may  supplement 
the  day-school  work  by  evening  work. 

A  leaflet  printed  in  the  school  reads  as  follows  : 

Reduce  the  first  cost  of  your  school  plants  and  the  actual  per-pupil  cost 
of  school  maintenance  by  adding  manual  training,  nature  study,  music, 
drawing,    playground   and   gymnasium   equipment,  and    specially  trained 


MORE  FUNDAMENTAL  REORGANIZATION 


93 


teachers  for  each  of  these  departments.  By  adding  these  departments  with 
specially  trained  teachers  you  can  also  relieve  permanently  and  completely 
the  overcrowded  school  program  and  curriculum,  and  the  overburdened 
teacher  and.  pupil.    It  all  depends  upon  how  you  do  it. 

The  following  program  shows  how  the  number  of  pupils  in  an  ordinary 
eight-room  school  has  been  doubled,  and  the  number  of  pupils  per  teacher  and 
supervisor  has  been  increased. 


Regular  School 

Forenoon 

Afternoon 

Teachers 

Rooms 

90  Min. 

90  Min. 

90  Min. 

90  Min. 

First  Grade    .... 

Classroom 

la 

lb 

la 

lb 

Second  Grade 

Classroom 

2a 

2b 

2a 

2b 

Third  Grade  . 

Classroom 

3a 

3b 

3a 

3b 

Fourth  Grade 

Classroom 

4a 

4b 

4a 

4b 

Fifth  Grade    . 

Classroom 

sa 

5b 

Sa 

5b 

Sixth  Grade   . 

Classroom 

6a 

6b 

6a 

6b 

Seventh  Grade 

Classroom 

7a 

7b 

7a 

7b 

Eighth  Grade 

Classroom 

8a 

8b 

8a 

8b 

Special  School 

45 
Min. 

45 
Min. 

45 
Min. 

45 
Min. 

45 
Min. 

45 
Min. 

45 
Min. 

45 

Teachers 

Rooms 

Min, 

Music 

Auditorium 

lb 

2b 

la 

2a 

3b 

4b 

3a 

4a 

Drawing  and  M.  T.    . 

Basement 

3b 

4b 

3a 

4a 

lb 

2b 

la 

2a 

Literature 

Library 

5b 

6b 

5a 

6a 

7b 

8b 

7a 

8a 

Nature  Study      .    .     . 

Basement 

7b 

8b 

7a 

8a 

5b 

6b 

Sa 

6a 

Three  Physical-         "] 

r  Attic 
1  Attic 

2b 

lb 

2a 

la 

6b 

5b 

6a 

5a 

Culture  Teachers 

4b 

3b 

4a 

3a 

8b 

7b 

8a 

7a 

and  the  Building  f 

I  Playground 

6b 

5b 

6a 

5a 

2b 

lb 

4a 

3a 

Principal                J 

[  Playground 

8b 

7b 

8a 

7a 

4b 

3b 

2a 

la 

For  the  sake  of  clearness  the  improved  school  machine  is  represented  as 
two  schools,  a  regular  school  and  a  special  school.  The  special  school  occupies 
what  was  formerly  waste  space  in  this  building.  Eight  teachers  are  in  the 
regular  school,  and  eight  teachers,  including  the  building  principal,  are  in  the 
special  school.  Sixteen  schoolrooms  are  accommodated  in  an  ordinary  eight- 
room  school  building.  Including  the  school  principal  and  the  special  super- 
visors, only  one  teacher  per  schoolroom  is  employed. 

Under  the  old  program  there  were  sixteen  classes  in  this  building,  but  each 
class  was  only  half  schoolroom  size  and  each  teacher  had  two  classes  in  a 


94  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

room  at  the  same  time.  Under  the  new  program  the  number  of  classes  remains 
the  same,  but  each  teacher  has  only  one  class  in  a  schoolroom  at  any  period 
and  the  classes  are  full  schoolroom  size.  The  new  program  is  used  success- 
fully in  four-room  schools,  eight-room  schools,  groups  of  portable  schools,  and 
thirty-room  school  buildings  constructed  especially  for  the  new  system. 

The  physical-culture  teachers  keep  the  playground  open  during  the  noon 
hour,  an  hour  after  school,  and  from  9  a.m.  to  5  i*.m.  on  Saturdays. 

The  foregoing  instances  of  attempts  to  modify  the  funda- 
mental organization  of  school  systems  and  to  introduce  elements 
of  flexibility  affecting  the  whole  scheme  of  education  are  un- 
doubtedly indications  of  a  deep-seated  dissatisfaction  with  tradi- 
tional educational  motives  and  standards.  They  reveal  as  well  a 
determination,  on  the  part  of  educators,  to  remodel  the  public 
schools  from  within. 

Meanwhile  advancement  has  been  made  in  other  localities  by 
developing  new  schools  and  classes  without  affecting,  immedi- 
ately and  directly,  the  system  as  a  whole.  These  new  educational 
"  experiments  "  are  generally  confined  to  a  limited  field  and 
their  purpose  is  clearly  defined.  Generally  speaking  they  have 
been  brought  out  by  forces  outside  the  educational  field,  or,  at 
all  events,  at  the  suggestion  of  those  who  are  not  of  the  teach- 
ing profession,  and  they  are  expected  to  benefit  primarily  those 
who  have  profited  least  by  the  prevailing  types  of  schools. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  succeeding  five  chapters  to  classify, 
describe,  and  interpret  some  of  these  examples. 


CHAPTER   X 

PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8 

The  schools  described  in  this  chapter  have  been  conducted 
with  the  purpose  of  improving  the  courses  of  study  in  the  ele- 
mentary school,  especially  for  those  children  who  have  not 
worked  successfully  under  the  prevailing  methods  found  therein. 

It  will  be  noted  that  these  new  courses  of  study  are  not 
intended  to  deprive  boys  and  girls  of  further  education  in  the 
higher  schools,  but  that  they  aim  to  save  for  this  education  a  much 
larger  percentage  of  the  school  population,  while  at  the  same  time 
giving  information  about,  and  practice  in,  some  industrial  work. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed  on  the  necessity  for 
appreciating  this  double  purpose  of  prevocational  work.  The 
word  "  vocational  "  serves  in  one  case  to  describe  the  "  end  "  of 
the  education  given,  and  in  the  other  to  indicate  the  "  interest " 
which  is  utilized  as  a  force  impelling  to  an  even  higher  end. 

The  Agassiz  School  Industrial  Classes, 
Boston,  Massachusetts 

This  was  the  first  of  the  existing  experiments  in  industrial 
training  established  within  the  elementary  schools  of  Boston,  and, 
it  is  believed,  the  first  of  this  type  in  the  country,  having  been 
organized  in  September,  1907. 

The  primary  purpose  in  establishing  the  classes  was  to  provide 
an  experiment,  the  results  of  which  would  assist  in  answering 
one  or  all  of  the  following  questions : 

( I )  Is  it  possible  so  to  modify  the  elementary-school  curriculum 
that  it  will  become  more  effective  in  training  pupils  for  industrial 

95 


96  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

pursuits,  while  maintaining  the  same  efficiency  in  preparation 
for  high  schools  ? 

(2)  Will  a  considerable  number  of  boys  and  their  parents  be 
interested  in  such  a  course  of  study,  should  it  be  established  ? 

(3)  If  taken  by  boys  otherwise  likely  to  leave  school  at  four- 
teen years  of  age,  will  this  course  have  the  effect  of  inducing 
them  to  stay  longer  in  school  ? 

(4)  Will  the  pupils  be  as  interested  in  manufacturing  a  prod- 
uct which  is  to  be  used  by  the  city  as  in  making  for  themselves 
the  ordinary  manual-training  models  ? 

It  was  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  some  practical  experience 
relating  to  these  questions  that  the  school  committee  on  May  6, 
1907,  passed  the  following  order,  namely  : 

That  the  superintendent  be  authorized  to  designate  one  or  more  boys, 
elementary  schools  in  which  the  course  of  study  may  be  experimentally 
modified  for  the  purpose  of  determining  in  what  way  these  schools  may 
become  more  effective  in  training  pupils  for  industrial  pursuits,  while  at  the 
same  time  maintaining  their  efficiency  in  preparation  for  high  schools. 

In  accordance  therewith  the  superintendent  selected  the 
Agassiz  School,  Jamaica  Plain. 

About  a  week  before  the  close  of  the  school,  copies  of  the 
following  circular  were  distributed  among  the  boys  who  were  to 
be  in  Grade  6  during  the  coming  year. 


Agassiz  School,  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  June,  1907. 


An  opportunity  will  be  offered,  next  September,  to  fifty  boys  of  Grade 
6  in  the  Agassiz  district,  to  enter  a  class  in  which  the  course  of  study  is 
planned  especially  for  boys  who  have  an  aptitude  for  industrial  pursuits. 

The  course  will  offer  more  manual  training,  shop  arithmetic,  and  working 
drawing,  and  at  the  same  time  will  maintain  the  efficiency  of  preparation 
for  high  schools. 

If  you  wish  your  boy  to  join  this  class,  please  sign  the  following  blank 
form  and  return  it  to  the  master  of  the  school. 

As  the  number  who  can  be  accommodated  in  this  course  is  limited,  the 
earliest  applications  will  be  considered  first. 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8  97 

Nearly  one  third  of  all  the  boys  eligible  for  the  class  applied 
within  one  week,  and  in  the  following  September  a  sixth-grade 
class  of  fifty  boys  was  organized. 

The  class  was  divided  into  two  sections  of  twenty-five  boys 
each,  and  each  section  worked  one  hour  of  each  school  day. 

In  determining  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done,  and  in 
selecting  the  articles  to  be  made,  one  fundamental  principle 
served  as  index  and  guide.  Everything  must  conform  as  closely 
as  possible  to  actual  industrial  work  in  real  life.  It  was  decided 
that  the  product  must  be  not  only  useful,  but  must  be  needed 
and  must  be  put  to  actual  use  ;  that  it  must  be  something  which 
may  be  produced  in  quantities ;  that  the  method  must  be  prac- 
tical, and  both  product  and  method  must,  so  far  as  possible, 
be  subjected  to  the  same  commercial  tests,  as  apply  in  actual 
industry. 

For  two  years  these  boys  had  done  the  regular  manual-train- 
ing work  of  Grades  4  and  5, —  cardboard  construction, —  so  it  was 
decided  to  begin  the  industrial  work  with  box  making. 

It  was  found  that  pasteboard  boxes,  costing  three  quarters  of 
a  cent  each,  were  being  used  by  the  school  department  in  send- 
ing out  certain  supplies,  and  the  class  undertook  the  manufacture 
of  several  hundred  of  these  boxes. 

The  method  employed  was  as  follows  :  First  a  sample  box 
was  studied  and  careful  note  was  taken  of  its  use,  of  the  material 
of  which  it  was  made,  and  of  the  details  of  its  construction.  Es- 
pecial attention  was  called  to  the  dimensions  and  to  the  need  of 
obtaining  accurate  results  in  order  that  all  boxes  might  serve  the 
purposes  for  which  they  were  intended  and  also  be  alike. 

Each  boy  then  made  one  entire  box,  drawing,  cutting,  scoring, 
gluing,  staying  corners,  pasting. 

Next,  by  a  brief  talk  and  with  necessary  demonstration,  an 
explanation  was  given  of  the  greater  economy  of  employing 
"'  industrial  methods." 


98  EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Jigs  were  made  for  facilitating  some  of  the  operations  and  for 
securing  greater  uniformity  in  the  product.  The  class  was  or- 
ganized into  different  groups  of  from  two  to  six  boys  each,  each 
group  performing  one  of  the  several  operations  involved  in  the 
making  of  the  box  or  the  cover.  There  were  the  box  cutters, 
cover  cutters,  stayers,  pasters,  fitters,  and  gluers.  There  were 
those  who  assembled,  inspected,  packed,  and  counted  the  boxes, 
and  there  were  the  assistant  teachers, —  foremen  in  embryo. 

Of  course  this  was  not  all  done  in  one  lesson.  By  the  time 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  of  these  boxes  were  made  and  packed, 
ready  for  the  supply  team,  the  boys  had  gained  at  least  a  glimmer 
of  light  on  five  points  of  superiority  of  this  the  industrial  method 
over  the  method  first  employed  :  first,  that  there  was  greater 
economy  in  the  use  of  material ;  second,  that  much  time  was 
saved,  since  it  was  not  necessary  to  lay  aside  one  tool  and  hunt 
for  another  at  the  completion  of  a  single  operation  ;  third,  that 
the  skill  increased  very  rapidly  by  performing  the  same  operation 
many  times ;  fourth,  that  a  standard  of  accomplishment  in  a 
given  time  was  established,  below  which  no  self-respecting  boy 
wished  to  fall ;  fifth,  that  a  "  good  "  box  could  not  be  produced 
if  any  of  the  group  of  boys  did  "  bad  "  work. 

In  passing  I  must  note  and  answer  one  objection  which  some 
advocates  of  "  educational "  manual  training  will  make,  namely, 
that  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  movement  is  not  educational, 
since  it  becomes  practically  automatic, —  a  matter  of  the  spinal 
cord.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  boys  show  an  ever-increasing  in- 
terest and  delight  in  their  work  as  they  become  more  and  more 
skillful,  for  there  is  a  keen  joy  in  mere  accomplishment  which 
is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  the  spinal  cord,  but  of  an  intelli- 
gence which  is  much  higher.  It  should  also  be  noted  in  this 
connection  that  from  time  to  time  the  groups  were  changed,  so 
that  in  the  end  all  the  boys  had  performed  several,  if  not  all,  of 
the  different  operations. 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8  99 

The  second  project  was  a  box  smaller  and  more  finely  con- 
structed than  the  first.    Sixteen  hundred  of  these  were  made. 

In  speaking  of  the  methods  used  in  making  the  later  projects 
it  is  only  necessary  to  note  two  points  in  which  they  differed 
from  those  first  employed  :  First,  in  the  earlier  project  the 
groups  were  chosen  with  reference  to  the  ability  of  individual 
boys  and  the  difficulty  of  the  several  operations ;  in  the  later, 
the  groups  were  formed  by  taking  the  boys  in  order,  and  by 
appointing  a  foreman  for  each  group. 

Second,  a  system  of  "  check  "  was  introduced,  which  made  it 
possible  to  trace  poor  work  to  its  author,  thus  fixing  responsi- 
bility. After  the  completion  of  the  second  project  some  calcu- 
lations were  made  to  ascertain  the  increase  of  efficiency,  and  it 
was  found  to  be  about  400  per  cent. 

Each  year  since  1907  approximately  33  per  cent  of  the  boys 
of  the  sixth  grade  of  the  Agassiz  School  have  requested  per- 
mission to  enter  the  industrial  class,  and  each'  year  more  than  the 
average  number  of  boys  have  been  regularly  promoted,  so  that 
since  September,  1909,  there  have  been  three  grades,  6,  7,  and 
8,  included  in  the  experiment. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  during  the  four  years  fewer  boys 
have  left  school  at  the  age  of  fourteen  than  would  ordinarily  be 
expected  in  this  district ;  that  the  boys  have  done  all  of  the  reg- 
ular work  of  the  school  excepting  manual  training,  which  the 
industrial  work  supersedes ;  and  that  interest  has  been  maintained, 
though  the  product  has  beeii  a  practical  one  manufactured  in 
quantity  and  used  by  the  school  department. 

The  so-called  industrial  work  consists  of  the  making  of  arti- 
cles from  heavy  pasteboard  and  other  box  materials,  as  illustrated 
by  the  first  projects  described  above,  and  also  of  woodworking 
and  drawing,  free-hand  and  mechanical. 

Briefly  outlined  by  grades,  the  work,  or  product,  of  the  initial 
class  during  its  three  years  was  as  follows : 


lOO       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Grade  6.   During  this  year  the  following  articles  were  made 
by  the  boys  : 

850  pasteboard  chalk  boxes  for  the  supply  department. 
1 750  pasteboard  crayon  boxes  for  use  in  elementary  schools. 
500  pasteboard  pencil  boxes,  cloth  covered,  for  use  in  high 

schools. 
710  Harvard  covers  for  use  in  high  schools. 
846  wooden  sand  shovels  for  use  in  summer  playgrounds. 
A  portion  of  the  time  was  given  to  mechanical  drawing,  which 
consisted  of  simple  geometrical  problems  and  the  working  draw- 
ings of  the  projects  to  be  made. 

Grade  7.    In  this  year  there  were  made  : 

34  portfolios  for  use  in  the  evening  industrial  school. 
333  boards  for  modeling  classes. 

266  wooden  looms,   266  heddles,  and   522  shuttles  for 
use  in  the  sixth-grade  weaving  of  the  elementary 
schools. 
100  wooden  specimen  boxes  for  use  in  the  normal  school. 
36  work  boxes. 
6  wooden    cases    for   the    evening    industrial    school 
(begun). 
A  limited  amount  of  time  was  given  to  the  making  of  working 
drawings  of  the  different  projects. 

Grade  8.    The  work  of  this  grade  has  been  as  follows  : 
Completion  of  the  6  cases  above  noted. 
100  boards  for  use  in  modeling  classes. 
4  window  ventilators. 
24  wooden  trays  for  cardboard-construction  equipment. 
100  wooden  bench  hooks  for  the  supply  department. 
1000  wooden  bench  stops  for  the  supply  department. 
600  specimen  blocks  for  the  Agassiz  School. 
2400  card-catalogue    boxes    for    the    school    department 
(begun). 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8         loi 

In  this  grade  less  time  was  given  to  construction  work  and 
more  to  drawing.  The  boys  were  taught  the  more  accurate  use 
of  drawing  instruments,  and  made  carefully  finished  working 
drawings.  During  the  last  half  of  the  year  the  boys  made  a 
catalogue  of  the  work  of  the  industrial  classes.  This  catalogue 
included  mechanical  and  free-hand  drawings  of  all  the  articles 
made.  It  also  included  such  designing  of  the  cover  and  spac- 
ing of  the  pages  as  would  make  the  catalogue  attractive.  By  this 
method  attention  was  called  to  the  practical  use  of  mechanical 
drawing,  free-hand  drawing,  color,  and  design. 

Only  a  few  facts  and  some  incomplete  statistics  regarding  the 
work  of  thf  boys  of  this  initial  class,  subsequent  to  graduation 
from  the  elementary  school,  are  available. 

While  these  boys  selected  the  course  because  they  were  indus- 
trially inclined,  38  stayed  to  graduate.  Of  these,  24  entered  high 
school,  6  went  into  mechanical  work,  2  into  clerical  work,  and 
the  vocations  of  the  remaining  6  are  unknown. 

Of  the  24  who  entered  high  school,  10  went  to  the  Mechanic 
Arts  High  School,  3  to  the  English  High  School,  2  to  the  Latin 
School,  2  to  the  Commercial  High  School,  and  7  to  the  general 
local  high  school.  Three  of  the  24  left  school  before  the  close  of 
the  year.  Strangely  enough,  these  three  were  all  from  the  tech- 
nical school. 

The  standing  of  the  boys  in  the  first-year  academic  work  of 
the  high  school  was  as  follows :  7  ranked  as  poor,  1 1  as  fair,  4 
as  good,  and  2  as  very  good. 

The  above  facts  and  figures  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
primary  purpose  for  which  the  school  was  established,  as  stated 
in  the  opening  paragraphs,  had  been  achieved.  The  most  im- 
portant result  of  the  Agassiz  School  work,  however,  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  several  experiments  in  industrial  education  which  it 
helped  to  promote  in  Boston  and  which  are  quite  fully  described 
in  the  annual  report  of  the  superintendent  of  schools  for  19 10. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


I02       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

The  Cleveland  Elementary  Industrial  School  ^ 

The  city  of  Cleveland  has  been  a  pioneer  in  things  educational. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  that,  with  her  large  num- 
ber of  manufacturing  and  commercial  interests,  she  has  taken 
a  prominent  part  in  the  establishment  of  those  school  activities 
which,  with  differing  shades  of  meaning  and  purpose,  have  been 
variously  characterized  as  the  manual  and  domestic  arts,  manual 
training,  or  industrial  education. 

The  Cleveland  Manual  Training  High  School  was  one  of  the 
first  of  its  kind  to  be  organized  in  the  United  States,  and  within 
a  few  years  of  its  establishment  the  type  of  work  given  therein 
was  extended  downward  into  the  elementary  grades* 

The  more  recent  movement  to  "  motivate  "  the  work  of  the 
high  schools  met  with  early  and  adequate  response  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Technical  High  School  and  the  High  School  of 
Commerce,  the  first  of  which  was  opened  for  the  enrollment  of 
pupils  and  the  organization  of  classes  on  October  5,  1908,  and 
the  second  just  one  year  later. 

The  Elementary  Industrial  School,  which  was  opened  in 
September,  1909,  and  which  it  is  the  purpose  of  this  article  to 
describe,  is  intimately  related  to  these  earlier  innovations  in 
public  education.  The  Technical  High  School  was  established 
with  the  purpose  of  providing  an  educational  institution  of  strictly 
high-school  standards,  employing,  it  is  true,  somewhat  different 
methods  and  appealing  to  different  interests,  but  open  only  to 
graduates  of  the  elementary  school. 

The  Technical  High  School  has  been  extremely  successful. 

The  report  of  the  committee  on  the  place  of  industries  in  public 

education  of  the  National  Educational  Association  says  : 

The  Technical  High  School  of  Cleveland  seems  to  the  committee  to 
approach  most  closely  to  the  definition  previously  given  for  such  a  school. 

1  Prepared  by  the  author  for  the  first  number  of  Vocational  Education^ 
published  at  Peoria,  Illinois. 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8        103 

There  are  several "  technical  high  schools  "  in  the  country,  but  an  examination 
of  their  courses  of  study  will  show  that  they  do  not  differ  radically  from 
ordinary  manual-training  high  schools. 

Successful  as  the  new  school  proved  to  be,  it  failed  completely 
to  influence  the  educational  plans  of  the  children  who  drop  out 
of  school  at  the  sixth  or  seventh  grade.  This  confirmed  the 
school  authorities  in  their  belief  that  an  institution  employing 
somewhat  similar  methods,  but  nearer  to  the  critical  point  in  the 
school  system,  was  an  essential  unit  in  that  system.  The  Ele- 
mentary Industrial  School,  which  had  been  in  contemplation 
for  some  months,  was  therefore  established  as  an  "  experiment 
station." 

The  problem  was  frankly  admitted  to  be  one  of  general  edu- 
cation rather  than  of  industrial  training,  and  the  investigation 
undertaken  was  addressed  to  the  specific  task  of  improving  the 
course  of  study  for  Grades  7  and  8,  especially  with  reference 
to  those  children  who  had  not  met  with  ordinary  success  under 
the  methods  of  instruction  commonly  employed  in  the  preced- 
ing grades. 

Briefly  outlined,  the  plan  was  as  follows  : 

(i)  A  course  of  study  was  to  be  developed  parallel  to  the 
existing  course  for  Grades  7  and  8  which  would  appear  more 
attractive  to  the  children  in  question,  and  which  would  actually 
prove  to  be  ino7-e  helpful  to  them  whether  they  remained  in 
school  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter  period. 

(2)  The  school  day  was  to  be  lengthened  to  six  hours. 

(3)  One  half  the  time  was  to  be  devoted  to  handwork. 

(4)  The  time  devoted  to  each  of  the  book  subjects  in  the  reg- 
ular elementary  school  was  to  be  reduced  by  two  fifths  and  was 
to  be  related  to  possible  vocational  interests  of  the  pupils,  not 
only  those  illustrated  by  the  handwork  of  the  school,  but  those 
possible  of  illustration  by  the  prominent  commercial  and  man- 
ufacturing activities  of  the  community.   That  is  to  say,  these 


I04       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

manual  and  vocational  realities  were  to  be  made  the  central  fea- 
tures of  the  school,  and  around  these  were  to  be  grouped  all  the 
other  school  activities. 

(5)  The  fundamental  features  of  these  subjects  were  to  be  pre- 
sented without  too  great  elaboration,  which  frequently,  through 
its  very  variety  of  illustration,  proves  to  be  most  confusing  to 
the  young  pupil. 

The  educational  theories,  advanced  in  support  of  this  plan,  laid 
especial  emphasis  on  the  necessity  of  appealing  to  the  children's 
desire  for  motor  activity  and  their  interest  in  and  dependence 
upon  concrete  actualities.  In  fact,  on  hearing  an  explanation 
of  the  relation  existing  between  the  handwork  and  the  book 
subjects  in  this  school,  the  writer  was  strongly  reminded  of  the 
ideals  of  the  earlier  advocates  of  manual  training.  It  seemed 
as  if  here  was .  an  attempt  to  realize  more  fully  —  perhaps, 
happily,  to  realize  completely  —  the  aims  of  the  pioneers  of 
twenty-five  years  ago,  which,  we  are  sometimes  told,  have  not 
been  realized  because  their  promoters  failed  in  the  very  prac- 
ticality which  they  professed  to  believe  was  fundamental.  The 
following  quotation  from  an  official  report  of  the  school  might 
well  have  been  taken  from  some  address  made  before  an  edu- 
cational body  two  decades  since. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  school  rests  upon  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
very  many  of  the  failures  of  children  in  the  work  of  the  schools  are  due 
not  to  lack  of  ability  on  the  children's  part,  but  to  the  failure  to  consider 
the  needs  of  the  hand-minded  or  practical-minded  children  on  the  part  of 
the  current  systems  in  their  one-sided  attention  to  the  language-minded  and 
imaginative,  —  in  the  reliance  upon  the  imagery  of  words  and  abstractions, 
rather  than  upon  the  actualities  of  concrete  life,  both  in  learning  and  doing. 

Elsewhere  it  has  been  observed  that  hand-minded  children  who  had 
gained  in  their  classes  the  reputation  of  dullards,  and  who  had  themselves 
lost  faith  in  their  powers,  were  restored  to  confidence  and  learned  to  make 
satisfactory  progress  even  in  previously  distasteful  subjects,  when  oppor- 
tunity came  to  them  to  exercise  their  powers,  in  matters  which  appealed  to 
their  mental  constitution  and  seemed  to  them  worth  wliile.   If  these  children 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8    105 

were  to  be  afforded  an  opportunity  to  make  the  best  of  themselves,  they 
must  be  approached  from  the  side  of  the  practical ;  they  must  learn  by  doing 
in  order  to  do.  Thus  alone  could  they  be  led  to  the  cultural,  to  the  discovery 
of  the  inestimable  value  of  knowledge,  of  science,  of  art,  and  even  to  the 
pursuit  of  these  for  their  own  sake.  Thus,  alone,  could  the  school  hope  to 
place  them  in  full  possession  of  their  human  inheritance,  to  reach  and  to 
stir  into  the  fullest  self-active  life  every  phase  of  their  mental  constitution. 

With  these  plans  and  theories  as  guiding  principles,  the 
elementary  industrial  school  was  organized  as  follows  :  A  ten- 
room  building  on  Summer  and  East  Thirteenth  streets,  a 
locality  fairly  central,  was  selected  in  which  to  house  this  ex- 
periment. There  are  three  recitation  rooms,  one  study  room, 
one  cooking  room,  one  sewing  room,  two  woodworking  rooms, 
one  drawing  room,  and  one  small  room  which  was  set  aside 
to  be  equipped  on  different  occasions  as  a  model  living  room, 
dining  room,  bedroom,  or  sick  room.  This  room  is  not  yet 
equipped  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  intended,  but  the 
furniture  and  other  fittings  are  being  made  by  the  pupils. 

The  management  of  the  school  is  nominally  in  the  hands  of 
a  director  who  acts  as  principal,  but  the  influence  of  the  super- 
visor of  manual  training  is  everywhere  apparent  in  the  organi- 
zation of  courses  and  in  the  spirit  of  liberal  judgment  which 
pervades  the  school.  Contrary  to  the  practice  obtaining  in  most 
industrial  schools,  no  special  commercial  or  shop  experience  is 
demanded  of  the  teachers  as  a  necessary  qualification.  The 
two  requisites  are  that  they  must  have  been  excellent  teachers 
either  in  the  grade  work  or  in  the  domestic  or  manual  arts,  and 
that  they  must  be  entirely  free  from  that  bias  which  long  expe- 
rience in  the  traditional  schools  frequendy  gives.  The  teachers 
finally  chosen  are  well  described  as  scientific  as  to  subject  mat- 
ter and  inspirational  as  to  methods  of  instruction. 

While  a  single  center  was  selected  in  which  to  make  the 
experiment,  it  was  intended  to  have  the  enterprise  of  common 
interest  to  the  whole  city.    Therefore  each  principal  was  given 


Io6        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

the  opportunity  of  sending  from  one  to  four  boys  or  girls  to 
this  school.  The  selection  of  these  children  was  made  after 
consultation,  and  invariably  with  the  consent  of  the  parents. 
Only  retarded  children  were  desired.  To  be  eligible  for  admis- 
sion to  the  school,  the  boy  or  girl  must  have  been  in  the  sixth 
grade  for  at  least  a  year,  must  be  thirteen  years  of  age  or  over, 
and  at  least  two  years  behind  grade,  the  grade  being  determined 
on  the  supposition  that  the  child  would  begin  school  at  the  age 
of  six  and  progress  one  grade  a  year.  Furthermore,  the  prin- 
cipals were  requested  to  send  only  such  children  as,  in  their 
opinion,  would  otherwise  withdraw  from  school  altogether. 

In  the  light  of  the  method  of  selection,  it  is  interesting  to 
examine  the  characteristics  of  the  children  who  attended  this 
school  the  first  term.  There  were  one  hundred  and  forty-three 
children  of  whom  approximately  two  thirds  were  boys.  In  age 
they  varied  from  twelve  to  seventeen  years,  with  an  average  of 
fourteen  and  two-tenths ;  and  in  grades  they  ranged  from  the 
fifth  to  the  seventh,  indicating  a  departure  from  the  original  plan, 
but  the  children  of  the  fifth  grade  were  very  rare  exceptions. 

The  school  brought  together  a  group  of  children  who  had 
been  rather  unsuccessful  in  the  regular  school  work,  who  had 
lost  interest,  and  who  had  especially  lost  confidence  in  them- 
selves. In  some  cases  the  boys  and  girls  had  been  difficult  to 
control,  to  say  the  least.  They  were  said  to  be  poor  writers,  poor 
spellers,  poor  in  their  grasp  of  the  processes  and  applications  of 
arithmetic;  in  short,  they  were  distinctly  of  the  "anti-book"  type. 

The  course  of  study  employed  may  best  be  considered  under 
two  heads,  the  constructive  or  handwork,  and  the  book  or  study 
work,  though  the  supervisor  of  manual  training  says  that  "  the 
important  feature  of  the  course  of  study  is  the  close  correlation 
and  unity  of  all  the  subjects." 

The  handwork  comprises  practice  in  working  drawing,  free- 
hand drawing  and  applied  design,  woodworking,  cooking,  sewing, 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8         107 

and  a  little  printing.  These  serve  to  call  attention  to  certain 
vocations,  as  mechanical  or  architectural  drawing,  carpentry, 
cabinetmaking,  pattern  making,  printing,  domestic  and  laundry 
work,  nursing,  and  dressmaking.  That  the  handwork  is  con- 
sidered to  be  of  great  importance  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 
approximately  one  half  of  the  time  is  devoted  to  it.  This  makes 
it  possible  to  carry  the  work  much  farther  than  in  the  grade 
school.  The  work  for  the  girls  goes  more  thoroughly  into  house- 
hold science  and  art,  and  includes  the  purchase  and  preparation 
of  foods,  the  service  of  meals,  laundry  work,  the  care  of  the  sick, 
the  furnishing,  adornment,  and  care  of  the  home,  and  the  mak- 
ing of  garments.  The  boys  work  for  a  time  on  general  courses, 
but  are  allowed  to  specialize  on  either  mechanical  drawing,  wood 
turning,  pattern  making,  cabinetmaking,  carpentry,  or  printing, 
during  the  major  part  of  the  second  year.  A  part  of  the  prod- 
uct of  this  work  becomes  the  property  of  the  pupils,  in  which 
case  they  pay  for  the  material  used  ;-  and  the  remainder  of  it, 
consisting  of  project  and  group  work  for  the  school,  remains  in 
the  school. 

There  is  little  in  the  equipment  of  the  school  kitchen,  the 
sewing,  woodworking,  and  drawing  rooms,  or  in  the  work  done 
therein,  to  distinguish  the  school  from  an  exceptionally  well- 
equipped,  well-organized,  and  thoroughly  modern  elementary 
school.  The  chief  difference  is  in  the  liberal  allotment  of  time, 
which  makes  a  corresponding  difference  in  the  amount  of  work 
done,  and,  to  some  extent,  in  its  nature.  This  latter,  however, 
is  not  marked,  but  it  should  be  recalled  that  this  is  absolutely 
consistent  with  the  expressed  purpose  of  the  school,  and  indi- 
cates a  confidence  on  the  part  of  its  promoters  in  the  efficacy 
of  manual  training  as  a  factor  in  general  education. 

In  the  book  work  some  radical  departures  are  made  from 
the  course  of  study  for  the  grade  schools,  though  it  is  main- 
tained by  the  teachers  and  the  superintendent  of  schools  that 


I08        KXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

the  fundamentals  of  each  subject  in  the  curriculum  are  given. 
This,  furthermore,  is  done  in  less  time, —  a  total  of  only  about 
fifteen  hours  a  week.    The  subjects  are  classed  as  follows  : 

English,  which  includes  reading,  writing,  spelling,  practical 
composition,  and  story-writing. 

Arithmetic,  the  four  fundamental  processes,  percentage  (one 
case),  decimals,  and  fractions,  all  related  as  closely  as  possible - 
to  the  handwork  or  illustrated  by  the  keeping  of  school  or  of 
personal  accounts. 

Geography-history,  which  is  taught  as  one  subject  and 
springs  from  the  consideration  of  commercial  and  industrial 
phenomena. 

Hygiene  of  a  thoroughly  practical  character. 

Perhaps  the  most  distinctively  characteristic  work  of  the 
school  is  the  geography-history.  It  is  believed  that  to  put  the 
child  in  intimate  touch  with  his  immediate  environment  is 
the  very  best  way  to  interest  him  in  the  study  of  more  distant 
places  and  people.  Therefore  the  location,  climate,  topography, 
and  soil  of  Cleveland  are  studied  and  described.  These  in  turn 
explain  the  manufacturing,  commerce,  and  history  of  Cleveland, 
which  arc  studied  in  the  most  practical  way  possible.  The  chil- 
dren are  taken  on  excursions  to  manufacturing  plants,  to  the 
flour  mills  and  the  large  distributing  concerns.  The  railroads 
and  other  means  of  transportation  are  discussed,  and  this  leads 
to  an  understanding  of  the  life  and  work  of  the  people  of  Cleve- 
land, their  varying  interests,  and  their  connection  with  other 
parts  of  the  country  and  with  other  days.  Visits  to  the  grain, 
cattle,  lumber,  or  steel  centers  carry  the  children  far  afield,  to 
be  brought  back  by  their  work  in  the  school  kitchen  and  shops. 
The  teaching  of  this  subject  appears  to  be  especially  efficient, 
and  the  classroom  has  the  appearance  of  a  museum  of  indus- 
trial products.  The  exhibits  are  neither  large  nor  numerous, 
but  are  fairly  representative  of  local  industrial  interests,  and  the 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8    109 

children  are  helped  by  them,  as  well  as  by  the  instruction,  to 
a  comprehension  of  some  of  the  industrial  possibilities  which 
the  future  may  hold  in  store  for  them. 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  speak  of  the  "  results  "  of  any  educa- 
tional experiment,  because  of  the  variety  of  influences  which 
may  have  affected  them.  This  is  peculiarly  true  when  the  data 
are  drawn  from  a  comparatively  small  number  of  cases,  and  cover 
so  short  a  period  as  that  during  which  the  Elementary  Industrial 
School  has  been  in  existence.  However,  judgment  and  opinion 
are  better  guides  than  blind  prejudice,  and  since  some  prejudice 
still  exists  against  anything  industrial  in  the  domain  of  elemen- 
tary education,  the  writer  will  venture  to  state  what,  in  his  opinion, 
the  two  years  seem  to  show. 

The  pupils  came  to  the  school  from  different  parts  of  the 
city,  some  of  them  having  to  ride  in  the  street  cars  from  six  to 
seven  miles,  others  walking  three  or  four  miles  to  and  from 
school.  It  was  stated  by  the  children  that  many  of  them  had 
taken  out  work  and  school  certificates  before  coming  to  the  in- 
dustrial school,  and  yet,  at  the  end  of  the  second  year,  out  of 
the  143  originally  enrolled,  52  still  remained,  33  boys  and  19 
girls,  and  of  these  49  graduated.  The  figures  show  that  many 
of  the  children  left  school,  as  was  to  have  been  expected,  but 
constant  additions  were  made,  and  the  total  membership  at  the 
end  of  the  second  year  was  146,  distributed  as  follows  :  in  the 
first-year  class,  56  boys  and  27  girls ;  in  the  second-year  class, 
42  boys  and  21  girls.  The  first  graduating  class  numbered  53, 
and  of  these  19  expected  to  enter  the  Technical  High  School 
and  I  a  regular  academic  high  school.  The  figures  show  con- 
clusively that  this  school  has  exerted  a  strong  influence  in  re- 
taining children  who  would  otherwise  have  become  early  and 
probably  unskilled  workers. 

Another  result  of  the  school  seems  to  be  an  awakening  of 
real  interest  on  the  part  of  the  children,  and  especially  the 


no       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

development  of  a  considerable  self-respect  and  confidence, — a 
confidence  which  appears  to  be  deserved.  They  have  been  given 
things  to  do  which  they  could  do  well,  and  this  has  had  the 
effect  of  making  them  more  self-reliant  in  all  their  work.  They 
are  able  to  learn  some  things  without  being  taught,  which  is  an 
extremely  valuable  asset  for  these  children  who  are  likely  to 
become  wage  earners  at  an  early  age.  As  an  illustration  of  this, 
the  work  in  printing  may  be  mentioned.  In  one  corner  of  the 
drawing  room  is  a  small  equipment  for  printing,  costing  per- 
haps one  hundred  dollars,  and  this  some  of  the  boys  have  been 
permitted  to  use.  They  are  self-instructed,  having  drawn  from 
the  public  library  such  books  as  they  needed  to  help  them  in 
making  a  beginning.  There  is  no  teacher  of  printing  in  the 
school,  yet  the  boys  have  made  considerable  progress. 

Not  the  least  valuable  of  these  results  is  the  changed  attitude 
of  the  children  toward  schools  and  school  life  in  general.  They 
have  enjoyed  their  school,  and  have  used  it  not  alone  for  work 
but  for  social  pleasures.  Several  plays,  for  example,  have  been 
well  given.  Few  pupils  think  it  desirable  to  leave  school,  while 
statistics  show  the  extreme  eagerness  with  which  children  of 
this  type  usually  sever,  permanently,  their  connection  with  the 
grade  school.  It  seems  fair  to  assume  that,  even  though  these 
children  must  go  to  work  in  the  near  future,  they  will  all  the 
more  readily  and  naturally  turn  to  such  other  educational  institu- 
tions as  may  be  open  to  them,  as  evening  or  continuation  schools. 
There  is  thus  a  hope  that  they  may  become  permanent  students  so 
far  as  study  becomes  at  once  necessary,  available,  and  appropriate. 

Quite  apart  from  the  benefit  of  this  school  to  its  pupils,  is 
its  value,  as  an  experiment,  to  the  cause  of  education  in  general. 
The  value  of  an  experiment  is  apparent  in  proportion  to  the 
fidelity  with  which  it  adheres  to  its  avowed  purpose.  Judged  from 
that  standpoint,  the  writer  feels  that  the  Elementary  Industrial 
School  has  proved  to  be  extremely  useful,  and  predicts  that  its 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8        -i  1 1 

lessons,  should  the  school  be  continued  or  multiplied,  will  be 
studied  with  interest  and  profit  by  students  in  elementary  educa- 
tion throughout  the  country. 

The  school  has  remained  constant  to  its  stated  principles,  as 
we  have  seen,  and  it  is  not  criticism  of  either  the  principles  or 
the  practices  of  the  school  to  note  that  it  differs  materially  from 
other  elementary  industrial  schools  which  have  been  established 
in  several  cities  within  the  past  five  years.  In  fact,  the  peculiar 
value  of  this  experiment  can  best  be  shown  by  contrasting  it 
with  others.  In  most  of  these  schools  especial  emphasis  is  placed 
on  the  industrial  nature  of  the  handivork.  A  practical  and 
commercial  product  is  desired,  and  all  the  conditions  of  the 
production  and  frequently  of  its  disposition  are  made  to  con- 
form as  closely  as  possible  to  those  actually  encountered  in 
the  industrial  world. 

It  was  apparently  partially  in  protest  against  such  practices 
that  the  Cleveland  experiment  was  undertaken.  In  an  editorial 
in  the  Manual  Training  Magazine  for  April,  19  lo,  Mr.  William 
E.  Roberts,  the  supervisor  of  manual  training,  said  : 

It  is  the  trade  school,  the  continuation  school,  the  elementary  industrial 
school  with  a  purely  utilitarian  purpose,  that  are  being  considered  and  sug- 
gested, rather  than  the  preparation  of  material  which  they  must  use,  the 
product  of  the  established  elementary  schools.  The  danger  lies  in  dealing 
with  industrial  education  as  apart  from  and  added  to  the  school  system,  in- 
stead of  making  it  an  integral  part  of  that  system  by  reorganization. 

Quite  consistent  with  this  thought,  the  handwork  of  the 
Cleveland  elementary  industrial  school  is  made  a  central  but  a 
cultural  factor,  while  industry,  not  being  the  primary  end  sought, 
is  utilized  in  both  the  handwork  and  the  book  or  study  work, 
but  especially  in  the  latter,  as  a  vitalizing  principle. 

That  the  work  of  this  school  is  believed  to  be  of  value  is 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  Cleveland  has  established  a  second 
elementary  industrial  school.    The  purpose  of  the  new  school 


1 1 2        EXAMPLES  OP^  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

is  to  try  the  experiment  of  relating  the  industrial  work  a  little 
more  closely  to  the  regular  school  course  and  especially  to  the 
regular  school  organization. 

The  new  experiment  is  conducted  in  a  regular  elementary- 
school  building  centrally  located  in  one  of  the  largest  districts 
of  the  city.  The  school  accommodates,  as  formerly,  all  the  chil- 
dren of  the  first  five  grades  in  the  district,  and,  in  addition,  all 
pupils  wishing  to  take  the  modified  course  in  the  sixth,  sev- 
enth, and  eighth  grades,  who  live  within  a  much  larger  district, 
including  some  six  or  eight  neighboring  school  buildings.  Pupils 
from  the  central  building  who  wish  to  take  the  regular  course 
in  the  higher  grades  are  permitted  to  go,  on  request,  to  one  of 
the  other  elementary  schools.  Such  requests  have  rarely,  if  ever, 
been  made. 

The  work  is  conducted  on  the  departmental  plan,  as  in  the 
Elementary  Industrial  School ;  it  is  arranged,  however,  for  a 
regular  five-hour  school  day  instead  of  the  six-hour  day.  In  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  three  hours  each  day  are  given  to 
book  work  on  a  plan  which  brings  each  pupil  in  contact  with 
three  different  teachers.  Two  hours  each  day,  in  these  grades, 
are  devoted  to  some  kind  of  handwork,  largely  domestic  science 
and  sewing,  with  a  little  free-hand  drawing  for  the  girls  and 
woodworking,  mechanical  and  free-hand  drawing  for  the  boys. 
The  children  of  the  sixth  grade  have  but  one  hour  of  hand- 
work a  day  and  four  hours  of  book  work. 

There  are  about  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  pupils  in  the  three 
upper  grades. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  two  experiments  described  above, 
those  of  Boston  and  Cleveland,  exemplify  radically  different 
methods  of  employing  the  handwork  in  their  attempts  to  accom- 
plish essentially  the  same  educational  purpose.  These  schools 
should  not  be  confused  with  those  of  secondary  type,  whether 
intermediate  or  high. 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8         113 

Other  experiments  in  the  field  of  prevocational  education 
which  amply  repay  study  are  to  be  found  in  Newark,  New 
Jersey ;  Indianapolis,  Indiana ;  St.  Paul,  Minnesota ;  Los 
Angeles,  California ;  Seattle,  Washington ;  Springfield  and 
Evanston,  Illinois ;  and  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts.  Only  a  brief 
outline  of  the  work  of  these  schools  can  be  given  here. 

Indianapolis,  Indiana 

The  semi-industrial  schools  are  open  to  both  boys  and  girls, 
and  their  courses  of  study  parallel  those  of  grades  seven  and 
eight.  The  pupils  come  mainly  from  those  grades,  but  a  small 
proportion  of  them  are  over-aged  boys  from  Grade  6. 

The  hew  course  of  study  has  been  placed  in  certain  of  the 
schools,  and  in  those  schools  it  is  not  elective  but  is  taken  by 
all  children  in  grades  seven  and  eight.    On  application  pupils- 
may  be  transferred  to  some  other  school  with  the  traditional 
course,  but  no  such  request  has  ever  been  made. 

The  range  of  industrial  activities  is  as  follows  :  carpentry, 
joinery,  repair  work,  art  metal  work,  printing  and  bookbinding, 
sewing,  dressmaking,  art  needle  work,  weaving,  cooking,  and 
housekeeping. 

Newark,  New  Jersey 

The  Warren  Street  School  offers  a  three  years'  course  to 
boys  only,  and  draws  its  pupils  from  all  parts  of  the  city. 

Pupils  may  enter  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  grade,  or  later 
in  the  course,  regardless  of  age ;  or  may  be  admitted,  if  four- 
teen years  of  age  or  over,  from  lower  grades.  Few  are  actually 
under  fourteen. 

The  work  has  a  more  intensive  trade  significance  than  in  most 
schools  of  this  type,  and  the  boys  appear  to  be  more  mature. 

The  industrial  subjects  are  carpentry,  metal  work,  pattern  mak- 
ing, foundry  practice,  electrical  wiring,  printing,  and  electrical 


114       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

construction.  It  is  expected  that  all  pupils  who  enter  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  grade  will  have  some  work  in  each  of 
the  industrial  branches  offered. 

"  The  school  places  its  graduates  in  positions  suitable  to  their 
ability  and  inclinations.  This  feature  of  vocational  guidance  was 
successfully  started  in  July,  191 1,  when  seventeen  out  of  twenty- 
one  graduates  were  placed  in  positions.  The  remaining  gradu- 
ates entered  the  high  school  or  moved  from  the  city." 

The  school  is  in  its  third  year. 

St.  Paul,  Minnesota 

The  Special  Industrial  Schools  of  St.  Paul  have  been  in  opera- 
tion since  1908,  and  are  open  to  boys  only.  These  come  not 
only  from  Grades  7  and  8,  but,  in  the  case  of  seriously  retarded 
children,  from  the  sixth  or  even  the  fifth  grade. 

The  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  take  boys  who  have  little 
prospect  of  completing  the  work  of  the  common  school,  and 
"  give  them  a  sort  of  finishing  course  before  they  go  to  work." 

A  three  years'  course  is  offered.  Not  only  does  it  help  the 
boy  if  he  is  forced  to  enter  industrial  life  at  an  early  age,  but 
its  completion  is  accepted  as  preparation  for  certain  courses  in 
the  high  school.  A  few  boys  have  entered  the  high  school 
through  this  channel. 

The  industrial  activity  is  largely  woodworking,  but  observa- 
tional study  of  other  kinds  of  work  is  afforded  by  carefully 
planned  and  supervised  visits  to  shops  and  factories. 

Springfield,  Illinois 

The  Springfield  Vocational  School  was  opened  in  September, 
1 9 1 1 ,  and  occupies  the  upper  floor  of  one  of  the  elementary 
buildings.  It  comprises  two  rooms,  one  of  which  is  equipped  with 
desks,  seats,  and  a  reading  table  well  supplied  with  appropriate 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8        115 

current  magazines.  The  other  contains  a  small  but  complete 
plant  in  which  actual  printing  and  bookbinding  are  done  by 
the  pupils.  The  boys  are  taught  printing  from  the  setting  of 
type  to  the  operating  of  the  press.  They  are  also  taught  the 
binding  of  tablets,  pamphlets,  and  simple  books.  The  teacher 
is  a  practical  printer  of  considerable  experience.  The  book  or 
study  work  is  in  charge  of  an  especially  competent  grade  teacher. 
The  school  is  open  to  boys  from  any  part  of  the  city,  thirteen 
years  of  age  or  over,  who  have  completed  at  least  the  first  five 
grades  and  who  are  recommended  by  the  principal  of  the  school 
which  they  attend.  The  capacity  of  the  school  is  forty  boys. 
The  length  of  the  course  is  not  yet  determined,  but  will  be  at 
least  three  years. 

EvANSTON,  Illinois 

Mr.  Walter  W.  Petit,  principal  of  the  Evanston  Elementary 
Technical  School,  which  was  organized  in  September,  19 11, 
writes  regarding  the  purpose  of  the  school  as  follows : 

Manual  training  for  the  boys  and  domestic  science  for  the  girls  has 
been  given  in  the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  schools  of  Evanston  for 
the  past  ten  years. 

The  elementary  technical  school  differs,  however,  from  the  other  schools 
of  the  city  in  that  half  the  time  is  given  to  industrial  work.  Pupils  from  the 
fifth  to  the  eighth  grades  are  enrolled.  Their  work  in  the  regular  subjects 
of  the  grammar-school  course  covers  but  half  the  school  day. 

Articulation  with  the  classical  high  school  of  the  town  is  provided  for, 
so  that  while  the  child  is  able  to  secure  a  grasp  of  a  number  of  elementary 
industrial  processes,  he  does  not  find  himself  in  a  school  in  which  the  ulti- 
mate aim  is  entirely  different  from  that  of  the  other  grammar  schools.  This 
is  necessary  in  Evanston,  for  the  town  is  a  residence  suburb  of  Chicago 
with  practically  no  industries,  and  most  of  the  children  continue  their  studies 
in  high  school. 

The  child  can  be  prepared  for  high  school  by  devoting  but  half  the  time 
to  academic  work,  because  of  the  increased  interest  he  has  in  his  school 
work.  Self-confidence  aroused  by  the  industrial  work  carries  over  into 
the  academic  work  and  results  in  better  progress.    Correlation  of  academic 


Il6       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

and  industrial  subjects  aids  in  securing  interest.  Comparatively  small  classes 
with  forty-minute  periods,  a  part  of  which  is  devoted  to  supervised  study, 
probably  helps  to  account  for  the  increased  ability  of  the  child  to  master 
his  book  work. 

There  are  about  one  hundred  children  enrolled.  None  of  these  have 
been  required  to  enter  the  school,  and  so  far  no  child  who  has  enrolled  has 
voluntarily  left  the  institution.  The  school  has  admitted  as  many  as  it  was 
originally  planned  to  accommodate,  and  there  are  at  present  a  number  on  the 
waiting  list.  Three  teachers  give  their  entire  time  to  the  academic,  and  two 
to  the  industrial,  work.  In  addition  three  other  teachers  give  part  of  their 
time  to  the  industrial  work  of  the  school. 

Woodwork,  cooking,  sewing,  millinery,  and  laundry  work  are  taught. 
All  pupils  devote  from  two  to  eight  hours  a  week  to  applied  art.  Under 
this  department  come  block  printing,  stenciling,  weaving,  metal  work, 
bookbinding,  and  leather  work.  The  school  has  been  furnished  with  a 
printing  press,  and  the  upper-grade  boys  have  done  considerable  printing. 
This  has  been  accomplished  with  practically  no  supervision.  The  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  print  the  programs  for  the  Friday  literary  exercises, 
advertisements  of  public  lectures  and  evening  classes,  letterheads,  and  prac- 
tically all  the  school  work. 

The  boys  in  the  eighth  grade  spend  eighty  minutes  a  week  in  cooking. 
Such  articles  of  food  are  prepared  as  might  be  served  in  camp  or  at  break- 
fast at  home.    This  has  proved  a  very  popular  course  with  the  boys. 

In  the  seventh  grade  the  boys  devote  two  hours  a  week  for  half  a  year 
to  pressing  and  cleaning  clothes,  patching,  darning,  and  sewing  on  buttons. 
The  girls  of  the  fifth  grade  are  taught  the  use  of  ordinary  woodworking  tools. 

When  first  planned,  the  school  met  with  some  opposition  among  the 
more  conservative  elements.  This  is,  however,  rapidly  disappearing,  and  a 
demand  will  probably  come  for  more  industrial  work  in  the  other  schools 
of  the  city. 

As  yet,  only  slight  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  vocational  sig- 
nificance of  the  work  in  this  school. 

FiTCHBURG,  Massachusetts 

Another  school  which  offers  opportunity  for  diversified  work 
in  Grades  7  and  8  is  the  Practical  Arts  School,  of  Fitchburg. 
This  school  has  been  erected  and  equipped  by  the  state  of  Mas- 
sachusetts to  furnish  opportunity  for  observation  and  practice 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8         117 

to  the  students  at  the  Fitchburg  Normal  School,  who  are  pre- 
paring to  teach  in  the  upper  elementary  grades.  Pupils  from 
any  part  of  Fitchburg  who  have  completed  the  sixth  grade  are 
admitted.  Four  courses  are  offered,  the  successful  completion 
of  any  one  of  which  admits  the  pupil  to  the  high  school,  where 
he  may  continue  the  line  of  work  upon  which  he  has  begun,  or 
may  take  a  fresh  start  by  electing  a  different  course. 
The  four  courses  are  as  follows  : 

A  Commercial  Course,  30  hours  per  week,  for  those  who  expect  to  take 
the  commercial  course  in  the  high  school  or  business  college,  or  who  intend 
to  go  to  work  in  offices  or  stores  at  the  end  of  the  grammar  grades. 

1 2^  hours  to  literature,  composition,  spelling,  penmanship,  mathematics, 
geography,  history,  and  science. 

7^  hours  to  physical  training,  music,  general  exercises,  and  recesses. 

5  hours  to  bookkeeping,  business  forms  and  procedure,  business  arith- 
metic, and  related  design. 

5  hours  to  typewriting  and  handwork. 

A  Literary  Course,  30  hours  per  week,  for  those  who  expect  to  go  on 
through  the  high  school  and  college. 

I  z\  hours  to  literature,  composition,  spelling,  penmanship,  mathematics, 
geography,  history,  and  science. 

']\  hours  to  physical  training,  music,  general  exercises,  and  recesses. 

5  hours  to  a  modern  language. 

5  hours  to  drawing,  designing,  making,  and  repairing  (household  arts 
for  girls). 

A  Manual-Arts  Course,  30  hours  per  week,  for  those  who  expect  to 
take  the  industrial  course  in  the  high  school,  or  who  intend  to  go  to  work 
in  the  trades,  the  mills,  or  the  factories  at  the  end  of  the  grammar  grades. 

12^  hours  to  literature,  composition,  spelling,  penmanship,  mathematics, 
geography,  history,  and  science. 

^\  hours  to  physical  training,  music,  general  exercises,  and  recesses. 

10  hours  to  drawing,  designing,  making,  and  repairing. 

A  Household-Arts  Course,  30  hours  per  week,  for  girls  who  wish  to 
devote  a  large  amount  of  time  to  the  arts  of  home-making. 

1 2\  hours  to  literature,  composition,  spelling,  penmanship,  mathematics, 
geography,  history,  and  science. 

']\  hours  to  physical  training,  music,  general  exercises,  and  recesses. 

ID  hours  to  household  arts. 


Il8       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Some  of  the  forms  of  work  undertaken  the  first  year  are  as  follows : 
Ordinary  repairs  : 

Faucets  in  the  buildings  repacked. 

Schoolroom  desks  and  tables  scraped  and  refinished. 

Setting  glass. 

Lawn  mowers  taken  apart,  cleaned,  oiled,  and  sharpened. 

Window  screens  painted. 

Decayed  basement  floors  relaid. 

Broken  furniture  glued. 

Chairs  reseated. 

Rubber  pads  on  the  stairs  taken  up,  turned,  and  retacked. 
Woodworking  : 

Workbenches  constructed. 

Assisted  in  making  kitchen  tables. 

Making  teachers'  desks  for  entire  building. 

Building  partitions  and  lockers. 
Painting  and  finishing : 

Steam  pipes  bronzed  to  match  color  of  walls. 

Floors  oiled. 

Chairs  for  building  bought  in  the  white,  finished  and  seated  by  pupils. 

Kitchen,  dining  room,  woodworking  room,  and  locker  rooms  painted. 

Workbenches  and  teachers'  desks  finished. 

Library  room  painted  and  papered. 
Grading  and  walks  : 

Work  upon  grading,  and  upon  the  building  of  concrete  walls  and  grano- 
lithic walks  has  just  begun.    Each  boy  has  plotted  the  grounds  and  walks 
and  has  taken  levels  under  competent  direction. 
Typewrititig  : 

Copying  of  letters  to  industrial  plants  in  various  towns  and  cities  of 
Massachusetts,  asking  for  material  for  industrial  exhibit.  Original  letters  to 
school  children  in  different  parts  of  New  England,  telling  of  Fitchburg  in- 
dustries and  requesting  replies  concerning  the  industries  of  their  cities. 

Copying  letters  to  parents,  explaining  courses  offered. 

Manifolding  copies  of  poems  and  songs  used  in  seventh  and  eighth 
grades. 

Copying  bills  for  books,  school  supplies,  and  materials  used  at  manual- 
arts  school. 

Practice  in  writing  business  letters  and  business  forms. 

Typewriting  language  and  spelling  lessons. 
Physical  culture  : 

Personal  hygiene. 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8        119 

Social  and  classical  dancing. 

Outdoor  and  indoor  games. 

Corrective  work  with  individuals. 
Household  arts  : 

The  girls  have  made  their  needlebooks  and  work  bags,  their  gymnasium 
suits  and  the  bags  to  carry  them  in  ;  also  their  caps  and  aprons  for  cooking. 
They  have  hemmed  the  towels  for  the  kitchen,  made  covers  for  18  type- 
writers, and  for  170  bean  bags  to  be  used  in  games  in  the  gymnasium. 
They  have  repaired  the  flags  for  the  school  building,  darned  the  rug  in 
the  reception  room,  and  are  to  make  overalls  and  jumpers  for  the  boys  to 
use  in  painting.  They  have  cleaned  the  windows  in  the  kitchen,  dining 
room,  and  sewing  room ;  cleaned  all  the  basins  in  the  new  building ;  have 
reseated  chairs ;  and  are  now  beginning  their  lessons  in  cooking. 
Applied  arts  for  girls  : 

Stenciling  of  designs  upon  workbags  and  needlebooks. 

Designing  covers  for  and  binding  books  and  magazines. 

Crocheting  table  mats  for  dining  room  and  knitting  wash  cloths. 

An  unusual  amount  of  time,  as  will  be  noticed,  is  given  to  handwork, 
which  takes  the  form  chiefly  of  typewriting  in  the  commercial  course,  and 
which  in  the  other  courses  is  devoted  to  a  great  variety  of  useful  and  nec- 
essary labor.  No  work  is  undertaken  except  in  response  to  a  real  need. 
The  finished  work  must  meet  the  need  adequately,  and  must  be  performed 
with  dispatch  and  in  a  workmanlike  manner.  Pupils  are  therefore  directed 
not  only  by  teachers  but  also  by  skilled  journeymen,  who  work  with  them. 
Beauty  of  design,  color,  and  ornament  are  not  neglected. 

The  school  carries  into  effect  the  very  latest  and  best  ideas  of  grammar- 
school  instruction  by  means  of  differentiated  courses,  with  complete  equip- 
ment and  adequate  teaching  force. 

While  this  volume  deals  with  examples  of  industrial  education 
which  are  in  actual  operation,  it  is  perhaps  permissible  to  note 
in  this  connection  an  elementary  industrial  course  which  has 
been  projected  for  the  Chicago  public  schools.  The  fact  that 
the  Chicago  Board  of  Education  has  recently  adopted  an 
"  industrial  course  of  study  for  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth 
grades  "  is  at  least  indicative  of  current  discussion  and  of  partial 
conviction  on  the  part  of  the  school  authorities.  In  the  Course 
of  Study  for  the  Elementary  Schools  is  the  following : 


I20       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

INDUSTRIAL  COURSE 

The  Industrial  Course  of  Study  is  not  offered  for  general  use  in  the 
elementary  schools  at  the  present  time.  Principals  who  are  satisfied  that 
the  conditions  in  their  districts  are  such  that  at  least  four  divisions  in  the 
upper  three  grades  can  be  organized  and  maintained  in  the  industrial 
courses,  should  confer  with  the  superintendent  of  schools.  No  divisions 
should  begin  the  work  without  special  permission  from  the  superintendent. 

Suggestive  Program 


9.00-9.30. 

Mathematics 

9.30-9.40. 

Music 

9.40-10.20. 

English 

Penmanship 

Physiology 

10.20-10.35. 

Recess 

10.35-11.05. 

History  and 
Civics 

Geography 

Chicago  Course 

1 1.05-1 1.30. 

Study 

Boys 

Girls 

1.00-2.20.    Shop 

Textiles 

Drawing  and  art 
Bookbinding 

2.30-2.35.    Recess 

Recess 

2.35-3.30.    Drawing 

Cooking 

Design  and  art 

Laundering 

Printing 

Printing 

An  examination  of  the  course  of  study,  which  is  given  in 
some  detail,  shows  that  the  word  "  industrial  "  as  used  therein 
has  the  same  content  as  the  term  "  manual  training,"  and  that 
the  plan  simply  contemplates  a  curtailment  or  simplification  of 
book  work  and  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to 
handwork,  for  its  general  educative  value,  and  with  slight  em- 
phasis on  its  vocational  significance. 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8         1 2 1 

Los  Angeles,  California 

The  Macy  Trade  School,  or  the  Girls'  Vocational  School  as 
it  is  soon  to  be  called,  might  possibly  be  classified  as  a  separate 
industrial  school,  and  as  such  be  treated  in  the  succeeding 
chapter.  But  it  indicates  so  well  the  general  movement  of  the 
Los  Angeles  school  system  toward  a  more  rational  adjustment, 
of  school  opportunities  to  the  needs  and  desires  of  the  children 
below  the  high  school,  that  it  is  described  here.  The  school  is 
a  recent  addition  to  the  system,  and  will  graduate  its  first  class 
in  February,  191 2.  Its  purpose  is  to  prolong  the  school  life  of 
as  many  of  its  pupils  as  possible  until  the  sixteenth  year;  to 
awaken  an  interest  in  the  industrial  life  of  the  community  and 
to  develop  a  desire  to  take  part  in  it ;  to  lay  the  foundation  for 
a  trade  training  ;  and  to  prepare  the  children  to  be  economically 
valuable  to  themselves  and  to  society. 

The  school  is  at  present  open  to  both  sexes,  but  in  September, 
191 2,  it  is  planned  to  establish  a  similar  one  for  the  boys, 
reserving  the  present  school  for  girls  only. 

Pupils  are  regularly  admitted  when  fourteen  years  of  age 
and  prepared  for  the  seventh  grade.  These  requirements  are 
not  rigid,  however,  and  may  be  modified  in  the  case  of  children 
who  are  peculiarly  qualified  to  pursue  this  course  to  advantage. 
The  work  practically  parallels  that  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades,  except  that  the  book  work  is  much  simplified  and  the 
handwork  is  greatly  extended. 

The  seventh  grade  devotes  ten  hours  a  week  to  book  work 
and  fifteen  hours  to  handwork,  while  the  eighth  grade  devotes 
fourteen  hours  to  the  former  and  sixteen  hours  to  the  latter. 
The  subjects  studied  are  arithmetic,  English,  drawing,  geom- 
etry, geography,  history,  and  calisthenics,  for  both  boys  and 
girls ;  cooking,  sewing,  and  design  for  the  girls,  and  shop  work 
for  the  boys. 


122       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

On  satisfactory  completion  of  two  years'  work  a  diploma  is 
given,  which  admits  the  pupil  to  the  high  school. 

The  membership  of  the  school  at  present  consists  of  thirty- 
seven  boys  and  fifty  girls. 

The  industrial  courses  for  the  girls  have  been  more  fully 
worked  out  than  those  for  the  boys.  A  circular  listing  them 
.reads  as  follows : 


COURSES  OFFERED  1912-1913 


I. 

Simple  handwork 

II. 

Underwear 

III. 

Wash  dresses  for  children 

IV. 

Wash  dresses  for  adults 

Sewing 

V. 

VI. 

Shirt  waists 
Fine  handwork 

VII. 

Power  operation  (simple) 

VIII. 

Power  operation  (advanced) 

IX. 

Dressmaking  (simple) 

X. 

Dressmaking  (advanced) 

I. 

Plain  cooking 

II. 

Advanced  cooking 

Cooking 

III. 

IV. 

Breakfast  and  luncheon  dishes 
Dinner  course 

V. 

Home  economics 

.      VI. 

Lunch-room  practice 

r       I. 

Correct  English  (simple) 

II. 

Correct  English  (advanced) 

III. 

Oral  reading 

English 

IV. 
V. 

Spelling  and  word  building 
Letter  writing  and  dictation 

VI. 

Composition 

VII. 

Literature  (selected) 

^  VIII. 

Shakespeare 

Textile  Design    .     .     .      - 

I. 

14. 

Simple 
Advanced 

PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8 


123 


Art 


History 


Geography 


Music 


Arithmetic 


I.  Free-hand  drawing  (beginning) 

II.  Free-hand  drawing  (advanced) 

III.  Applied  design  on  textiles 

IV.  Pottery 

V.  Leather  work 

VI.  Metal  work 

I.  U.  S.  history  to  1789 

II.  U.  S.  history,  1 789-1912 

III.  Social  and  industrial  history 

IV.  History  of  California 

I.  Industrial  geography 

II.  Geography  of  California 

III.  Textiles 

I.  Chorus  work  (unison) 

II.  Chorus  work  (two-part  songs) 

III.  Chorus  work  (three-part  songs) 

IV.  History  of  music 

I.  The  four  fundamentals 

II.  Fractions,  decimals,  and  percentage 

III.  Trade-school  arithmetic 


Each  course  covers  five  recitations  weekly  for  ten  weeks  and  carries  one 
credit  for  completion.    Forty  credits  will  entitle  a  pupil  to  graduation. 

The  school  authorities  are  taking  steps  to  establish  a  voca- 
tional bureau  based  on  the  plans  worked  out  by  the  Vocation 
Bureau  of  Boston.  Already  visits  of  investigation  have  been 
made  to  upwards  of  seventy-five  places  employing  children,  in- 
cluding factories,  dressmaking  establishments,  department  stores, 
tailors'  shops,  commercial  houses,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining the  vocational  possibilities  for  girls  in  Los  Angeles. 

As  noted  above,  this  school  is  indicative  of  a  general  educa- 
tional activity  looking  to  the  material  improvement  of  the 
opportunities  for  those  who  seem  least  likely  to  profit  by  the 
older  and  more  abstract  courses  of  study. 

At  the  Castelar  Street  School  a  new  domestic-science  build- 
ing has  been  erected,  the  first  in  the  city  to  be  used  exclusively 


124       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

for  that  purpose  and  in  connection  with  an  elementary  schooL 
It  will  be  used  both  by  the  pupils  of  the  regular  classes  and  by 
the  after-school  classes  mentioned  below. 

The  work  given  will  include  much  wider  application  of  the 
practical  arts  for  girls  than  is  usually  to  be  observed  in  the  sew- 
ing and  cooking  classes  with  which  we  have  become  familiar. 
Cooking,  sewing,  housekeeping,  nursing,  sanitation,  the  selec- 
tion and  purchasing  of  foods,  and  the  preparation  and  serving 
of  the  school  luncheons  will  be  carried  on  with  as  large  a 
measure  of  practical  utility  as  possible. 

A  plan  recently  put  into  operation,  which  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered as  having  a  vocational  purpose,  yet  one  easily  possible 
of  extension  in  that  direction,  is  that  of  opening  the  school 
facilities  to  volunteer  classes  from  three  to  five  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  that  is  to  say,  for  an  after-school  session.  This  work 
is  carefully  supervised  by  competent  teachers,  but  is  intended 
to  appeal  to  the  interests  and  to  develop  the  initiative  of  the 
children,  the  teacher  directing  or  guiding,  rather  than  instruct- 
ing and  compelling  compliance  with  fixed  courses  of  work  or 
rules  of  discipline.  Classes  of  this  type  are  in  successful  op- 
eration in  nine  schools. 

The  superintendent,  Mr.  John  H.  Francis,  has  determined 
to  adapt  the  schools  of  Los  Angeles  to  every  possible  phase  of 
the  many-sided  life  of  a  growing  and  cosmopolitan  city. 

Seattle,  Washington 

In  the  Northwest  considerable  progress  is  being  made.  It 
should  be  recalled  that,  with  the  opportunities  which  a  compara- 
tively new  and  rapidly  developing  country  affords,  the  demand 
for  special  vocational  training  is  not  so  insistent.  Neverthe- 
less Seattle  has  taken  an  advanced  position  regarding  indus- 
trial education  and  vocational  training  in  the  elementary  and 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8    125 

intermediate  fields  of  education.  Special  elective  courses  of  the 
prevocational  type  have  been  arranged  with  the  expectation  of 
meeting  more  satisfactorily  the  educational  needs  of  both  boys 
and  girls  during  the  period  of  early  adolescence.  The  following 
circular  sent  to  the  parents  of  some  of  the  Seattle  public-school 
children  will  describe  the  movement. 


THE  ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL 

The  Board  of  School  Directors  of  the  Seattle  public  schools  have  author- 
ized the  opening  of  three  industrial  schoolrooms  or  centers. 

The  purpose  of  this  circular  is  to  explain  the  aims,  plan,  and  program  of 
such  a  school,  the  requirements  for  admission,  its  relation  to  the  high  school, 
and  some  of  the  reasons  which  have  led  to  its  establishment. 

The  elementary  industrial  school  is  intended  to  provide  a  course  of  study 
relating  much  more  to  the  industries  than  the  ordinary  school  program,  and 
containing  a  more  practical  training  for  a  class  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  who  are  naturally  suited  by  instruction  which  will  the  better 
and  sooner  prepare  them  for  training  in  a  definite  vocation.  In  every  school 
there  are  some  boys  and  girls  who  prefer  studies  and  exercises  that  employ 
their  hands,  and  who  have  greater  aptitude  in  such  studies  than  their  fel- 
lows. They  advance  in  their  development  by  what  they  do  rather  than  by 
what  they  hear.  They  are  practical-minded.  Many  such  children  drop  out 
of  school  as  soon  as  the  law  permits,  not  from  lack  of  ability,  but  because 
the  school  fails  to  fit  its  procedure  to  their  particular  needs.  The  establish- 
ment of  these  industrial  classes  is  an  attempt  to  fit  the  school  to  the  wants 
of  this  class  of  pupils.  Such  classes  are  not  substitutes  for  a  trade  school, 
but  are  intended  to  lead  more  quickly  and  surely  to  apprenticeship  in  busi- 
ness or  trade,  while  not  closing  the  door  to  further  study  either  in  high  or 
special  schools,  if  the  pupil  desires  to  pursue  such  a  course. 

The  plan  provides  distinct  courses  for  boys  and  for  girls,  and  requires 
that  those  taking  such  courses  be  separated  from  the  regular  school  classes 
in  the  building. 

The  school  day,  which  is  the  same  as  for  the  regular  classes,  will  be  di- 
vided into  seven  periods  of  forty  minutes  each,  about  half  of  the  time  to  be 
spent  upon  the  ordinary  school  studies,  modified  to  suit  the  end  aimed  at  in 
this  plan,  and  the  other  half  to  be  devoted  to  the  industrial  and  household 
arts  —  shop  work  and  mechanical  drawing  for  the  boys,  and  cooking,  sew- 
ing, design,  and  drawing  for  the  girls. 


126       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 
Outline  and  Explanation  of  Industrial  Courses 


For  Boys 

For  Girls 

English 

English 

Geography-history 

Geography-history 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

Mechanical  drawing 

Drawing  and  design 

Shop  work 

Sewing 

Cooking 

English  will  include  reading,  spelling,  penmanship,  letter  writing,  and 
composition. 

Geography  will  include  map  studies,  climatic  conditions  and  influences, 
industries  and  products,  exports  and  imports,  routes  and  centers  of  trade, 
the  studies  to  be  correlated  as  far  as  practicable  with  the  work  in  shop 
and  kitchen. 

In  history  there  will  be  a  review  of  the  influential  events  in  the  develop- 
ment of  our  country,  including  particular  reference  to  the  country's  greatest 
characters  and  their  achievements,  and  of  the  causes  contributing  to  our 
present  national  standing.  The  purpose  will  be  to  give  an  elementary 
knowledge  of  the  important  facts  in  our  history  and  to  imbue  with  a 
patriotic  desire  to  be  serviceable. 

In  arithmetic  the  fundamental  operations  include  fractions  applied  in 
shop  work  and  in  local  problems ;  percentage  and  interest ;  applications  of 
measurements  and  mensuration.  The  purpose  will  be  to  secure  accuracy  in 
the  use  of  figures  and  practice  in  their  application  to  practical  affairs. 

Industrial.  The  shop  instruction  will  consist  of  work  intended  to  give 
knowledge  of  materials  and  their  sources  and  use ;  tools  and  skill  in  their 
use ;  methods  of  construction ;  problems  in  machine  and  hand  work ; 
acquaintance  with  factory  and  individual  production ;  the  use  of  preserva- 
tives, as  paints,  oils,  etc. ;  discussions  of  the  various  vocations ;  visits  to 
work  under  construction  —  to  manufacturing  and  commercial  establishments. 

The  industrial  work  for  girls  will  consist  of  plain  sewing,  garment 
cutting  and  fitting,  repairing;  the  study  of  household  linens,  fabrics  used 
in  the  home,  the  sewing  machine ;  also  class  talks  and  discussions  regarding 
clothing,  hygiene,  style,  costs,  methods  of  manufacture,  the  sweatshop, 
trades  and  vocations  for  women.  Attention  is  also  given  to  plain  cooking, 
properties  of  foods,  economy,  table  service,  sanitation,  laundry  work,  care 
of  the  home,  etc.  Actual  conditions  make  possible  the  purchasing  and  pre- 
paring of  a  simple  lunch  daily  and  serving  the  same  to  other  pupils  at  noon 
at  cost.    Class  talks  are  given  upon  related  topics  of  home  life  and  its 


PREVOCATIONAL  WORK  IN  GRADES  6-8        127 

obligations,  domestic  service,  income  and  expenditure,  etc.  Applied  design  is 
taught,  including  surface  decoration  as  affected  by  material  and  service,  the 
use  of  color,  problems  in  making  designs  for  notebook  covers,  belts,  pillows, 
draperies,  and  the  aesthetics  of  the  home. 


The  Relation  of  this  Course  to  the  High  School 

The  rank  of  this  course  will  correspond  to  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
of  the  usual  school  course,  and  will  require  two  years  for  its  completion. 
At  the  end  of  the  two  years  pupils  completing  this  course,  who  choose  to 
continue  their  school  work,  may  enter  the  high  school  upon  an  equal  footing 
with  the  pupils  entering  from  the  regular  course. 

Requirements  for  Admission 

This  course  is  open  to  any  boy  or  girl  thirteen  years  of  age  or  over,  who 
has  completed  the  equivalent  of  the  present  sixth  grade,  provided  the  parent 
or  guardian  makes  a  written  request  upon  the  form  provided  for  that  pur- 
pose, and,  further,  that  the  principal  of  the  school  last  attended  by  the  pupil 
recommends  that  the  pupil  should  take  the  industrial  course. 

As  only  three  schools  can  be  established  at  this  time,  the  number  of 
pupils  will  have  to  be  limited  to  72  boys  and  72  girls.    Do  you  wish  to  have 

attend  one  of  these  schools .''    If  so,  please  sign  your  name  below  as 

indicative  of  your  desire  to  have chosen. 

While  differing  materially  in  several  important  particulars,  all 
of  the  above  schools  agree  in  the  following  fundamentals  : 

First.  They  admit  the  need  of  providing  a  secondary  motive 
in  education  at  this  critical  time  in  the  life  of  children,  and 
believe  that  this  motive  is  closely  associated  with  vocational 
interests. 

Second.  They  believe  that  spending  half  the  time  in  hand- 
work and  half  in  book  work  secures  a  greater  and  more  perma- 
nent development  of  the  pupils'  intelligence,  particularly  for  the 
concrete-minded  type  of  children  attracted  by  these  schools,  than 
is  possible  where  the  entire  day  is  devoted  to  academic  study. 
Successful  accomplishment  is  recognized  as  the  best  incentive 
to  continued  effort. 


128       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Third.  They  do  not  interpose  a  barrier  between  the  elemen- 
tary and  the  high  school,  but,  quite  to  the  contrary,  they  have 
created  a  new  channel  by  which  it  may  be  reached. 

In  commenting  on  prevocational  work,  Mr.  George  A.  Mirick,^ 
acting  superintendent  of  schools,  Indianapolis,  says  :  "  This  form 
of  education  will  not  eliminate  all  the  failures  from  the  schools, 
but  it  is  diminishing  their  number.  For  many  children  school 
has  become  a  place  where  they  have  been  trained  to  bear  de- 
feat unresistingly.  For  a  growing  number  of  them  the  elemen- 
tary industrial  school  has  become  a  place  where  they  are  taught 
how  to  attain  success.'' 

1  Now.  Deputy  Commissioner  of  Education,  New  Jersey. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  INTERMEDIATE  OR  SEPARATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL 

While  these  schools  have  much  in  common  with  the  prevoca- 
tional  work  of  the  elementary  school,  there  is  one  considerable 
difference.  They  do  not  commonly  permit  later  entry  into  high 
schools,  though  the  work  which  they  offer  sometimes  duplicates 
portions  of  the  high-school  course.  They  are  intended  partic- 
ularly for  boys  and  girls  who,  having  arrived  at  the  age  of  four- 
teen, find  themselves  out  of  harmony  with  schools  and  school 
purposes,  as  they  see  them,  and  who  would,  failing  the  opportu- 
nity afforded  by  the  industrial  school,  probably  seek  immediate 
entry  into  industrial  life. 

They  therefore  occupy  an  "  intermediate  "  position  between 
the  elementary-school  work  and  that  of  the  traditional  high 
school.  They  are  in  a  sense  "  separate  "  from  both  and  "  inde- 
pendent "  of  their  domination.  In  a  sense  also  they  are  "  second- 
ary," if  not  "high."  Each  of  these  words  has  been  used  to 
designate  this  type  of  school. 

While  these  schools  frequently  offer  four  years  of  work,  it  is 
generally  conceded  that  the  children  entering  them  are  com- 
monly desirous  of  taking  a  short-term  trade  course.  The  schools 
therefore  appeal  directly  and  immediately  to  the  vocational 
interests  of  their  pupils,  and  build  on  the  vocational  motive, 
making  it  a  central  and  predominant  factor  in  the  work  of  the 
school,  thus  approximating  the  reality  which  attracts  so  many 
children  away  from  school  life. 

Schools  of  this  type  have  been  most  needed  where  traditional 
education  is  most  strongly  intrenched  and  blindly  unyielding  to 

129 


I30       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

the  needs  of  the  majority  of  the  school  children.  They  have 
therefore  come  into  prominence  in  the  older  and  more  con- 
gested sections. 

In  some  instances  where  the  economic  needs  of  the  pupils 
are  greatest,  the  book  work  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  prep- 
aration for  immediate  industrial  efficiency  is  made  the  first  and 
most  evident  consideration.  This  is  notably  the  case  in  the 
Manhattan  Trade  School,  New  York,  which  is  mentioned  later, 
and  in  the  Girls'  Trade  School  of  Boston.  For  this  reason  such 
schools  might  be  classified  as  "trade  schools,"  as  their  names 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  they  should  be,  but  the  purpose  of 
these  schools  and  the  fact  that  they  appeal  to  pupils  of  the  same 
age  and  possessing  the  same  general  characteristics  as  do  other 
intermediate  industrial  schools  seem  to  warrant  the  classification 
here  made. 

The  Rochester  Shop  School,  Rochester,  New  York 

Perhaps  the  best  example  of  this  type  of  school  is  the 
Rochester  Shop  School,  formerly  known  as  the  Factory  School. 
Its  purposes  have  been  clearly  defined  from  the  first  and  its 
methods  have  been  simple  and  direct.  It  is,  for  this  reason, 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  instructive  experiments  in 
industrial  education  which  the  author  has  ever  seen. 

The  principal,  Mr.  Lewis  A.  Wilson,^  states  that  the  purpose 
of  the  school  is  not  to  teach  a  trade  but  to  develop  in  every  boy 
initiative,  productive  power,  and  a  trade  character.  He  believes 
that  the  "  product  system,"  which  characterizes  the  methods  of 
the  school,  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  valuable  features. 

The  following  description  of  the  work  of  the  school  was 
prepared  by  Mr.  Wilson. 

On  December  i,  1908,  the  Rochester  Factory  School  was  opened  to 
supply  a  definite  need  in  the  city's  industrial  life.    The  previous  May  the 

1  Now  principal  of  the  Albany  Vocational  Schools,  Albany,  New  York. 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      131 

state  passed  a  law  providing  for  aid  for  general  industrial  and  trade  schools, 
and  Rochester  was  the  first  city  to  take  advantage  of  the  new  state  law. 

The  Rochester  Factory  School  has  for  its  aim  the  training  of  boys 
along  general  industrial  lines,  and  in  the  fundamental  principles  pertaining 
to  certain  trades,  but  does  not  aim  to  teach  a  trade.  It  does  aim  to  develop 
efficiency  and  rapidity  in  execution,  so  that  those  who  go  out  with  a  diploma 
will  be  better  fitted  to  enter  their  chosen  trade  than  they  would  be 'under 
prevailing  conditions. 

When  the  school  was  first  opened  only  one  course,  cabinetmaking, 
was  offered.  Forty  boys  were  enrolled  and  two  teachers  gave  the  in- 
struction, one  in  shop  work  and  the  other  in  grade  work  and  drawing. 
This  proved  so  successful  that  on  the  following  February  a  course  in 
electricity  was  offered.  At  this  time  two  more  teachers  were  employed, 
one  to  give  the  electrical  work  and  the  other  to  take  charge  of  the  grade 
work.  The  mechanical  drawing  from  this  time  on  was  taught  by  a  special 
teacher.  By  this  time  the  number  of  boys  had  increased  from  forty  to 
one  hundred. 

From  February,  1909,  to  February,  191  o,  the  school  was  run  on  the 
above  basis,  but  it  was  then  discovered  that  the  existing  corps  of  shop 
teachers  could  not  give  instruction  in  all  the  lines  of  work  desired  by  the 
boys,  and  this  led  to  the  establishment  of  two  new  courses,  those  in  car- 
pentry and  plumbing.  This  necessitated  the  hiring  of  two  additional  shop 
instructors  and  a  principal.  In  September,  1910,  courses  in  architectural 
drawing  and  machine  design  were  added. 

Courses  are  now  offered  in  cabinetmaking,  carpentry,  electricity,  plumb- 
ing, architectural  drawing,  and  machine  design.  The  length  of  each  course 
is  two  years,  forty  weeks  a  year  and  thirty  hours  a  week. 

The  weekly  apportionment  of  time  in  each  course  is  as  follows : 

Shop  work 15    hours 

Shop  mathematics 5    hours 

Drawing 5    hours 

English 2^  hours 

Industrial  history i  ^  hours 

Spelling I     hour 

Home  work  on  spelling  and  shop  mathematics  is  required  of  all  stu- 
dents to  the  extent  of  five  hours  a  week.  The  boys  in  the  electrical 
department  are  required  to  spend  three  hours  a  week  on  electrical  theory. 

The  following  table  gives  a  comparison  of  the  time  allotment  of  the 
eighth  grade  of  the  regular  schools  and  that  of  the  Rochester  Shop  School. 


1 12       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 


Rochester  Shop  School 

Shop  work 
Arithmetic 


Drawing 
English  . 
Spelling 
Industrial  history 


900  minutes 
300  minutes 
300  minutes 
1 50  minutes 
60  minutes 
90  minutes 


Total,  30  hours 


Grade  Schools,  Grade  8 

Manual  training  . 
Arithmetic  .     .     . 
Drawing     .     .     . 
Language,  grammar 
Spelling 

Reading,  literature 
Writing 

History  .... 
Civics     .... 
Physical  training 
Music     .... 
General  exercises 


1 20  minutes 

250  minutes 
60  minutes 

250  minutes 
75  minutes 

1 50  minutes 
75  minutes 

250  minutes 
85  minutes 
75  minutes 
60  minutes 
25  minutes 

Total,  25  hours 


The  school  is  under  the  immediate  suf>ervision  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, and  is  maintained  by  funds  supplied  by  the  state  and  the  city.  It 
is  free  to  any  of  the  boys  in  the  city  who  are  in  or  above  the  sixth  grade 
and  are  at  least  fourteen  years  of  age. 

The  organization  of  the  school  can  be  considered  nearly  ideal,  the 
shop  teachers  having  classes  of  from  thirteen  to  fifteen,  and  the  grade  and 
drawing  instructors  classes  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty. 

These  teachers,  six  in  number,  exclusive  of  the  principal,  have  been 
selected  with  reference  to  their  training  along  both  practical  and  theoretical 
lines,  and  they  have  especial  qualifications  for  their  work,  which  they  are 
doing  most  efficiently.  There  is  one  teacher  each  for  cabinetmaking,  elec- 
trical work,  carpentry,  and  plumbing ;  one  who  teaches  drawing,  industrial 
history,  and  geography ;  and  one  who  instructs  in  shop  mathematics,  Eng- 
lish, and  spelling. 

It  is  the  aim  of  the  school  to  provide  conditions  resembling  those  found 
in  actual  practice,  and  for  this  reason  the  school  has  more  the  air  of  a  shop 
than  a  school.  Partly  for  this  reason  the  sessions  are  from  8.30  to  1 1 .30  a.m., 
and  from  I2M.  to  3  p.m.,  the  early  closing  in  the  afternoon  giving  oppor- 
tunity for  the  boys  to  find  outside  work  and  thus  prolong  their  school  lives. 

It  is  not  the  intention  to  have  any  fixed  time  for  graduation,  as  a  boy 
may  enter  the  school  at  any  time  during  the  year  and  may  be  graduated  as 
soon  as  he  completes  the  prescribed  course. 

Many  boys  have  left  the  school  during  the  past  year,  compelled  to  do 
so  in  many  cases  because  of  the  necessity  of  giving  financial  aid  to  their 
parents.   The  following  figures  may  be  interesting : 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      133 

Returned  to  other  schools 25  boys 

Entered  classified  trade  work 30  boys 

Entered  unclassified  trades 20  boys 

Left  the  city 7  boys 

Unknown 38  boys 

The  number  of  boys  returning  to  other  schools  is  mainly  due  to  the 
location  of  the  Rochester  Shop  School.  Some  returned  to  the  grade  schools, 
however,  for  the  purpose  of  reaching  a  higher  standard  before  entering 
the  practical  work.  The  number  of  boys  working  at  unclassified  trades  is 
partly  due  to  the  fact  that  some  were  too  young  to  be  admitted  to  a  trade. 

Following  is  a  detailed  description  of  each  department  of  the  school, 
giving  the  equipment,  the  outline  of  work,  and  typical  examples  of  the 
practical  finished  product. 

CABINETMAKING  DEPARTMENT 
The  instruction  offered  in  this  department  aims  to  cover  the  general 
work  of  the  cabinetmaker,  with  special  emphasis  on  the  work  required  by 
the  local  industries.  The  department  is  a  complete  little  factory,  with  its 
stock  room,  assembly  room,  and  finishing  room.  Each  boy  is  promoted 
according  to  his  ability,  but  a  corresponding  high  standard  is  required  in 
the  supplementary  instruction. 

The  equipment  of  the  department  is  as  follows  : 

Stock  Room 

2  No.  I  American  saw  benches. 

I  No.  I  American  horizontal  boring  machine. 

I  No.  1 1  American  planer  (24"). 

1  American  band  saw  (30"). 

I  American  jointer. 

I  Moore  belt  sanding  machine. 

I  Holmes  swing  cut-off  saw. 

I  thirty-inch  grindstone. 

1  filing  vice. 

2  motors. 

Assembly  Room 

6  six-foot  cabinetmakers'  benches. 

6  cabinetmakers'  tables. 

I  set  glue  coils. 

I  seven-pot  glue  tank. 

4  dozen  cabinetmakers'  clamps  and  hand  screws. 


134       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Each  bench  is  equipped  with  the  following  tools :  block  plane,  jack  plane, 
smoothing  plane,  |"  chisel,  ^"  chisel,  4^"  square,  9"  square,  gauge,  hammer, 
nail  set,  knife,  awl,  mallet,  hacksaw,  3"  saw  driver,  9"  screw  driver,  bevel, 
brace,  half-round  file,  oil  stove,  oil  can,  and  counter  brush. 

Finishing  Room 
2  cabinetmakers'  benches  with  same  equipment  as  in  assembly  room. 
I  fitting  table.  Varnishes. 

I  staining  table.  Shellacs. 

Stain  and  varnish  pots.  Brushes. 

Stains.  Upholstery  supplies  and  equipment. 

Outline  of  Work 

Assembly  room.  Names  and  uses  of  tools  with  instructions  as  to  their 
handling  and  care.  Preparation  of  glue,  preparation  of  joints,  "  gluing  up  " 
of  joints,  methods  of  assembling  furniture,  preparations  for  assembling 
furniture,  assembling  of  furniture,  "  cleaning-up "  of  furniture,  inspection 
of  furniture,  filing  and  setting  of  saws,  sharpening  of  scrapers  and  chisels. 
Lectures  on  glue,  nails,  clamps,  screws,  dowels,  woods,  grades  and  kinds 
of  tools,  fittings. 

Stock  room.  "  Getting  out "  rough  stock,  work  on  cut-off  saw,  saw  and 
band  saw,  jointing  of  material,  planing  of  material,  making  of  machine 
joints,  setting  up  of  machines,  care  of  motors. 

Lectures  on  general  care  of  machines,  kinds  of  machines,  machine  joints, 
matching  of  lumber,  grading  of  material,  arrangement  of  machines,  shop 
methods,  shafting,  belting,  care  of  motors,  sandpaper,  speed  of  machines. 

Finishing  room.  Fitting  of  furniture  locks  and  fixtures ;  shellacking, 
staining,  varnishing,  rubbing,  upholstering,  making  stains  and  wax. 

Lectures  on  care  of  brushes,  stains,  shellacs,  varnishes,  fillers,  alcohol, 
benzine,  turpentine,  rotten  and  pumice  stone,  fittings,  preparation  of  woods, 
kinds  of  finishes,  upholstering  material. 

Product  manufactured  during  the  past  two  years : 
260  bookcases.  >         62  sawhorses. 

18  kindergarten  tables.  25  bench  rests. 

32  saw  boxes.  100  drawing  kits. 

25  drawing  tables.  200  primary  looms. 

1 2  sewing  boxes.  50  large  looms. 

100  toy  knitters.  15  "special  orders." 

1 20  chairs.  1 2  costumers. 

24  flat-top  desks.  36  manual-training  benches. 

I  dining-room  table  (sample).  I  buffet  (sample). 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      135 

Every  article  manufactured  by  the  Shop  School  must  be  something 
needed  in  the  public  schools  and  which  the  Board  of  Education  would  other- 
wise purchase,  and  must  have  an  educational  value.  The  education  of  the 
boy  comes  first,  the  product  is  secondary.  All  the  product  is  "  run  through'' 
in  lots  of  six,  with  time  and  stock  cards. 


ELECTRICAL  DEPARTMENT 

The  work  in  this  department  aims  to  covet"  a  general  course  in  all 
branches  of  electrical  work.  The  boys  do  all  the  repair  work  on  the  bells, 
telephones,  gongs,  motors,  and  lights  in  the  public  schools. 

The  equipment  in  this  department  is  as  follows : 

I  Jacobson  gas  engine  (5  horse  power). 

I  Rochester  Electric  Motor  Co.  D.  C.  generator  (2  k.  w.). 

I  Rochester  Electric  Motor  Co.  D.  C.  motor  (2  h.  p.). 

I  Westinghouse  A.  C.  3-phase  motor  (5  h.  p.). 

I  Elbridge  Electric  Co.  generator  (i  k.  w.). 

I  set  castings  for  U.  C.  motor  (2  h.  p.). 

I  hot-air  engine. 

I  Westinghouse  induction  motor  (5  h.  p.,  220  volts). 

1  Wagner  Electric  Co.  single-phase  motor  (5  h.  p.). 

2  General  Electric  arc  lights. 
I  telephone  exchange  board. 
I  pair  standard  scales. 
Voltmeter  and  ammeter. 

19  shop  benches. 

Each  bench  is  equipped  with  the  following :  fine  file,  medium  file, 
coarse  file,  file  brush,  small  screw  driver,  large  screw  driver,  pliers,  |"cold 
chisel,  I"  cold  chisel,  i"  cold  chisel,  calipers,  scrapers,  5"  steel  square,  large 
claw  hammer,  machinist's  hammer,  tinsmith's  hammer,  2'  ruler  and  wrenches. 

The  tool  room  contains  many  extra  tools,  such  as  breast  drills,  hand 
drills,  feeling  bits,  bench  drills,  large  and  small  tap  wrenches,  large  stock, 
medium  stock,  and  small  stock,  dies  and  taps,  coil  winder,  splicing  clamps, 
countersinks  and  braces,  snips,  large  hand  drill,  etc. 

Outline  of  Work 

Mechanical  tvork.  Chipping,  filing,  bending,  squaring,  drilling,  counter- 
sinking, surfacing,  polishing.  This  work  is  done  in  the  manufacturing  of 
products  needed  in  the  Shop  School,  such  as  pulley  supports  and  guides  for 
bookcases,  conduit  and  pipe  straps,  girder  clamps,  and  bench  stops. 


136        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Sheet-metal  work  such  as  the  making  of  zinc  plates  for  wet  cells,  win- 
dow plant  boxes,  cut-out  boxes,  waste  and  ash  cans,  motor  hoods.  This 
work  includes  the  development  of  surfaces,  use  of  gutter  tongs,  tap  and  die 
work,  soldering,  and  recnforcing. 

The  making  of  wet,  crowfoot,  chloride,  and  dry  cells,  manufacture  of  tele- 
phone and  telegraph  instruments. 

Lectures  on  care  of  tools,  metals,  mechanical  and  chemical  mixture  of 
cells,  plumber's  furnace,  blow  torch. 

Stripping  and  splicing  of  wires  by  the  use  of  pliers,  splicing  clamps, 
blow  torch,  soldering  iron,  solder  and  flux,  taping  of  joints  and  splices  with 
rubber  and  friction  tape. 

Wiring  of  the  following  systems  and  circuits :  series,  parallel,  shunt, 
series  parallel  and  parallel  series,  opened  and  closed  circuits,  grounded  cir- 
cuits. Installing  and  testing  of  bells,  annunciators,  buzzers,  fire  alarms, 
door  openers,  telephones,  telegraph  instruments,  messenger  call  boxes,  gas 
lights,  etc.,  and  their  circuits. 

Lighting  circuits.  Installation  of  lighting  circuits  involving  the  follow- 
ing :  knob,  cleat,  molding,  conduit  work,  two-  or  three-wire  circuits,  direct 
and  alternating  circuits,  single  and  double  pole,  three-way  and  four-way 
switches,  panel  boards  and  cabinets,  fixtures,  balancing  of  circuits,  carbon 
and  metal  filament  lights,  tantalum  and  tungsten  lights,  arc  lights,  meters. 

All  the  work  in  the  wiring  is  designed  first  in  the  shop  and  worked  out 
there  and  tested.  This  work  is  done  under  the  rules  of  the  National  Board 
of  Underwriters. 

Lectures  on  static  electricity.  Induced  charges,  electroscopes,  attraction 
and  repulsion,  potential  difference,  friction  machines,  and  induction  machines. 

Circuit  electricity.  Electric  current,  pressure,  capacity,  condensers.  Ley- 
den  jars. 

Electrical  cells.  The  simple  cell,  voltaic  cell,  volta  pile,  polarization  and 
depolarization,  open  and  closed  circuit  cells,  bichromate  cells,  Bunsen  chlo- 
ride, Le  Clancht?,  Daniell,  gravity,  and  dry  cell. 

Storage  batteries.  Description  of  the  various  types  of  storage  batteries. 
Installation  and  care  of  the  various  types  of  storage  batteries. 

Electrolysis.  Electrolytic  conductors  and  cells,  chemical  actions,  and  ap- 
plication of  Faraday's  laws.    Theory  of  electrolysis. 

Magnetism.  Natural  and  artificial  magnets,  compass  and  dip  needles, 
magnetic  induction,  distribution  of  magnetism,  magnetic  fields,  lines  of  force, 
magnetomotive  force. 

Electric  current  and  circuits.  Ampere,  volt,  ohm.  Ohm's  Law.  Deter- 
mination of  the  resistance  of  wire,  series,  parallel,  series  parallel,  parallel 
series,  shunt  circuits. 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      137 

Power  lOork.  Installing,  repairing,  testing,  and  care  of  D.  C.  series-, 
shunt-,  and  compound-wound  generators  and  motors.  Shop  tests  on  above 
as  to  heat  on  full  and  over  load.  Power-consumption  and  efficiency  tests, 
indicated  and  brake  horse-power  tests,  voltage  and  speed  tests.  Dissembling 
and  reassembling  of  all  the  above  machines.  The  winding  of  fields  and 
armatures. 

Gas-engine  practice  attd  tests.  Power  and  efficiency.  Indicated  and 
brake  tests  for  horse  power.  Dissembling  and  reassembling  of  parts  of 
engine,  care  of  engine,  etc. 

Installing,  repairing,  testing,  and  care  of  A.  C.  generators  and  rotary  con- 
verters. Single-,  two-,  and  three-phase  types.  Induction  and  synchronous 
motors  with  their  starting  devices.  Installing  of  transformers  and  oil 
switches. 

Comparison  of  alternating  and  direct  currents,  frequency,  phase,  course 
of  current,  pressure,  self-induction,  lag  of  alternating  current,  application  of 
Ohm's  Law,  testing,  heating  and  chemical  effects  of  alternating  current, 
power  and  power  factor,  effective  current  and  pressures. 

Design  and  manufacture  of  synchronous  motors,  induction  motor,  rotary 
converters,  arcs  and  incandescents,  and  electric  power  plants. 

Electrical  energy.  Electromagnetism,  electromagnetic  induction,  gal- 
vanometers and  voltmeters,  measurement  of  electrical  resistance.  Measure- 
ment of  current  and  pressure,  measurement  of  capacity,  direct-current 
dynamos  and  motors,  shop  methods. 

The  electrical  department  has  charge  of  the  repairing  of  the  bells,  tele- 
phones, gongs,  batteries,  and  lighting  systems  of  the  public  schools  of  the 
city ;  also  the  installing  of  new  work.  This  affords  an  opportunity  for  the 
boys  to  secure  practical  experience  under  ideal  conditions. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  repair  work  done : 

September  19,  1910,  School  15  —  Repairing  telephones. 

September  27,  1910,  School  33  — Repairing  fire  gongs  and  telephones. 

October  5,  1910,  E.  H.  S.  —  Repairing  motor. 

October  19,  1910,  School  26 — Installing  5  h.  p.  motor. 

October  24,  1910,  School  4  —  Repairing  lights  in  manual-training  room. 

November  15,  1910,  School  5  —  Installirrg  stereopticon  lantern. 

PLUMBING  DEPARTMENT 

The  instruction  in  this  department  is  designed  to  give  the  boy  a  clear 
insight  into  the  plumbing  trade.  Students  work  from  their  own  blue  prints 
and  designs  made  in  the  drawing  room,  and  a  high  standard  of  work  is 
required  in  their  supplementary  instruction. 


138       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

The  equipment  of  the  department  is  as  follows : 

3  work  tables  for  joint  wiping. 

I  large  bench  for  pipe  cutting  and  tap  and  die  work. 

1  Ryder  pumping  engine. 

3  gas  solder-melting  furnaces  (complete). 

2  No.  32  gasoline  torches. 
I  large  pip)e  vise. 

I  machinist's  vise. 

I  No.  I  set  common  stock  and  dies. 

1  No.  3  set  Armstrong  pipe  and  dies. 

2  No.  I  Saunders  pipe  cutters. 
I  No.  2  Saunders  pipe  cutters. 

1  No.  I  Barnes-Saunders  pipe  cutters. 

1 2  sets  of  the  following  tools :  1 2"  rasp,  1 2"  coarse  file,  turn  pin,  oval 
shave  hook,  tap  borer,  soil  cup,  soil  brush,  6"  compass,  bending  pin,  10" 
gas  pliers,  hammer,  dresser,  ladle,  large  and  small  wiping  cloths,  and 
copper  bits. 

Following  general  tools :  yarning  irons,  calking  irons,  joint  runner, 
ladles,  bending  springs,  drift  plugs, Stillson  pipe  wrenches, Warnock  wrenches, 
burner  pliers,  comb  pliers,  flat-nose  pliers,  hack  saws,  steel  squares,  Diss- 
ton  saws,  ratchet  brace,  set  of  bits,  expansion  bit,  levels,  plumb  bobs,  screw 
drivers,  heavy  hammers. 

Stock  of  sinks,  bath  tubs,  basins,  closet  combinations,  boilers,  traps,  ells, 
tees,  unions,  nipples,  couplings,  and  all  common  and  special  fittings. 

Outline  of  Work 

Pipes  andJUtings.  The  cutting  and  threading  of  wrought-iron  pipe  and 
making  use  of  the  proper  size  and  kinds  of  fittings  in  assembling  same  for 
simple  water-  and  gas-supply  systems. 

Cutting  cast-iron  soil  pipe,  and  yarning,  pouring,  and  calking  joints.  The 
proper  supporting  and  fastening  of  cast-iron  and  lead  pipes. 

Flufnber''s  furnace.  Care  and  operation  of  the  plumber's  furnace  and 
blowtorch. 

Copper  bit  work.  Tinning  of  soldering  irons.  Preparing  and  making 
the  following  seams  and  joints :  butt  seam,  bead  or  V-seam,  lap  seam,  cup 
joint,  beaded  joint,  overcast  joint. 

The  using  of  flux  in  soldering  lead,  tin,  brass,  copper,  iron,  galvanized 
iron,  and  zinc. 

The  proportions  and  melting  points  of  strip  solder. 

Wiping  solder,  wiping  cloths,  joint  wiping. 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      139 

Testing  of  proportions  and  mdlting  points  of  wiping  solder. 

Purifying  and  keeping  solder  in  good  condition. 

The  folding  and  preparation  of  moleskin  and  ticking  wiping  cloths. 

Preparing  and  making  the  following  wiped  joints  :  |"  and  i|"  horizontal 
round  joint,  |"  and  i|"  upright  round  joint,  |"  horizontal  and  upright 
branch  joint,  i  Y'  floor  flange. 

Wiping  joint  on  |"  lead  and  soldering  nipple. 

Wiping  joint  on  i^"  lead  and  soldering  nipple. 

Wiping  joint  on  2"  lead  and  brass  ferrule. 

Wiping  joint  on  4"  two-bend  and  brass  ferrule. 

Wrapping  wall  flange. 

Water  supply  and  distribution.  Running  cold-  and  hot-water  supply 
to  kitchen,  laundry,  and  bathroom,  including  regular  range  boiler  connec- 
tions.   Setting  up  and  connecting  a  kitchen  sink. 

Lectures.  Use  and  care  of  tools,  solder  and  fluxes,  wiping  cloths,  joints 
and  their  use,  study  of  local  plumber's  rules  and  regulations. 

Elementary  plumber's  physics.    Study  of  questions  and  answers. 

Installing  of  plumbing.  Installing  a  complete  drainage,  ventilation,  and 
hot-  and  cold-water-supply  system,  including  the  setting-up  and  connecting 
of  laundry  trays,  sink,  refrigerator,  closet,  bath,  and  lavatory. 

Tests.   Applying  the  water,  air,  smoke,  and  peppermint  tests. 

Hot-water  circulation  and  tank-pressure  systems.  The  changing  of  the 
above  water-supply  system  to  a  circulating  system  with  tank  pressure  and 
connections  for  furnace  and  instantaneous  water  heater. 

Setting  up  and  connecting  other  fixtures  and  appliances  as  follows : 
shower  bath,  sitz  bath,  urinal,  anti-freezing  closets,  slop  sinks,  pantry 
sinks,  drinking  fountains,  gas  logs,  instantaneous  water  heaters,  force  pumps, 
water  lifts,  and  Ryder  pumping  engine. 

Lectures.  Drainage,  ventilation,  and  water-supply  systems ;  anti-siphon 
and  vented  traps;  direct,  tank,  and  pneumatic-pressure  systems;  boiler 
connections,  windmills,  pumps  and  water  lifts ;  disposal  of  sewage ;  special 
fixtures  and  appliances,  estimating  specifications,  costs,  shop  reports, 
plumber's  rules  and  regulations. 

This  department  has  charge  of  the  plumbing  repair  work  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  city,  and  the  following  are  examples  of  the  work  done : 

September  21,  1910,  School  18  —  Repairing  closet  tank  and  automatic 
tilting  tank. 

September  23,  191  o.  School  13  —  Repairing  broken  water  pipes. 

September  28,  1910,  School  8  —  Repairing  leak  in  closet  tank. 

September  30,  1910,  School  4  —  Repairing  leak  in  flush  pipe. 

October  7,  1910,  West  High  —  Connecting  of  gas  plate. 


I40       EXAMPLES  OK  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

November  7,  1910,  School  1 1  —  Repairing  sanitary  drinking  fountain. 
November  9,  1910,  School   24  —  Installing  basin  bowl  and  repairing 
basin  cocks. 

November  10,  1910,  School  25  —  Kejpioving  stoppage  in  basin  waste. 

CAKTENTRY    DEPARTMENT 

The  work  in  this  department  aims  to  give  the  boys  a  thorough  foundation 
in  all  woodworking  processes.  A  considerable  part  of  the  time  is  devoted 
to  repair  work  in  the  public  schools  under  the  guidance  of  the  instructor. 

The  equipment  of  this  department  is  as  follows :  1 3  six-foot  benches 
each  equipped  with  the  following  tools :  cut-off  saw,  hacksaw,  hammer, 
gauge,  steel  square,  large  try-square,  small  try-square,  bevel,  |"  chisel, 
I"  chisel,  half-round  file,  block  plane,  jack  plane,  jointer,  smoothing  plane, 
oil  can,  oilstone,  and  mallet. 

The  special  tools  are  as  follows :  ripsaws,  crosscut  saws,  universal  planes, 
plows,  circular  planes,  large  square,  levels,  rabbet  planes,  braces,  bits,  hand 
drills,  screw  drivers,  draw  knives,  compasses,  bars,  files,  rasps,  putty  knives, 
spoke  shaves,  saw  set,  slip  stones,  files,  and  grindstones. 

Outline  of  Work 

Use  and  care  of  the  tools. 

Making  of  lap  joints,  mortised  and  tenon  joints  and  dovetailing,  appli- 
cation of  work  in  practical  shop  problems  required. 

Work  on  the  roughing-in  of  an  ordinary  dwelling. 

Foundation  walls  and  piers. 

Sills  (solid  and  boxed). 

Joists,  girders,  and  lookouts. 

Studding  (size,  material,  and  setting). 

Ribbon  or  girt. 

Plates. 

Rafters  (various  pitches,  valley,  hip,  and  jack  rafters). 

Trussing. 

Cornices  (parts,  styles,  and  construction). 

Siding  and  shingling. 

Floors  and  subfloors. 

Setting  of  door  jambs. 

Base  blocks,  corner  blocks,  head  blocks,  plaster  casings,  fillets,  neck 
moldings,  head  casings,  dust  caps. 

Baseboards. 

Plate  and  chair  rails. 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      141 

Simple-stair  building. 

Winding-stair  building. 

Elementary  mill  work. 

Lectures.  Tools  and  their  care,  woods,  shop  methods,  lumber  measure- 
ment, glue,  nails,  screws,  bolts,  straps,  fittings,  framing,  shoring  and  under- 
pinning, roofs,  stair  building,  outside  work,  interior  finishing,  finishing,  paints, 
shellacs  and  varnishes,  woodworking  machinery.  Thorough  study  of  the 
building  ordinances  of  Rochester. 

Typical  examples  of  repair  work : 

February  24,  19 10,  School  8  —  Building  partitions  in  cellar. 

April  19,  1910,  School  24  —  Laying  floors. 

May  II,  1910,  School  25  —  Building  teachers'  lockers. 

May  26,  1 9 10,  School  9 —  Building  supply  cupboards. 

September  27,  1910,  School  2  —  Building  porch. 

September  29,  19 10,  School  19  to  School  1 1  — -  Moving  of  portable  school 
building. 

November  2,  19 10,  School  25  —  Building  of  storm  house. 

DRAWING 

A  thorough  course  in  shop  drawing,  based  on  the  special  needs  of  the 
trade,  is  given  to  each  student.  This  work  varies  according  to  the  product 
and  repair  work,  as  the  students  work  from  blue  prints  throughout  the 
courses.  The  instruction  is  given  by  lectures,  blue  prints,  and  blackboard 
work.  The  student  first  makes  his  drawing  on  detail  paper  and  it  is  checked 
by  the  instructor.  He  then  makes  a  tracing  of  his  drawing  and  later  a  blue 
print,  which  he  takes  to  the  shop. 

The  school  furnishes  a  set  of  mechanical  drawing  instruments,  T-square, 
angles,  and  drawing  board. 

SHOP  MATHEMATICS 

After  a  thorough  review  of  arithmetic  which  proves  to  the  instructor  the 
ability  of  the  student,  the  boy  is  given  a  course  covering  formulas  used  in  his 
shop.  The  shop  problems  are  prepared  by  the  shop  instructors  and  are  in 
direct  correlation  with  the  changing  work.  This  work  involves  arithmetic, 
algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry. 

INDUSTRIAL  HISTORY 

The  course  in  industrial  history  is  taken  from  Thurston's  "  Economics 
and  Industrial  History." 


142       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

English 
The  course  deals  with  business  forms,  shop  reports,  ordering  of  material, 
and  written  reports  on  factqry-inspection  trips. 

Spelling 
The  words  for  this  course  are  selected  from  trade  reports,  shop  reports, 
trade  journals,  and  from  general  industrial  material. 

While  the  money  value  of  the  work  of  the  pupils  is  a  minor 
matter,  it  is  by  no  means  inconsiderable.  The  following  tabular 
statement,  covering  the  work  also  of  a  second  shop  school  more 
recently  established,  serves  not  only  to  show  the  money  value 
of  the  work  done,  but  to  give  appropriate  emphasis  to  the  most 
distinctive  characteristic  of  this  interesting  school. 

Cost  of  Rochester  Shop  Schools 
January  i,  1910-January  i,  191 1 


RocHHSTKR  Shop  School 
Lexington  Avenue 

Washington 
Shop  School 
Clifford  Av. 

Departments 

Cabinet 

Carpentry 

Plumbing 

Electrical 

Woodworking 

Totals 

Number  of  students 
Equipment       .     . 
Salaries  .... 

25 
$  267.09 

1775-40 
57546 
1255.91 
3606.77 
2135.00 
1471-77 

25 

$     91.88 

158540 

57546 

625.17 

2786.03 

805.60 

1981.03 

25 

$   146.81 

1585.40 

575-46 

602.69 

2763-55 

455.00 

2308.55 

25 

5  45345 

1775-40 

575-46 

675.00 

3025.86 

1207.00 

1818.86 

50 

$  225.00 

1940.00 

360.10 
2300.10 

368.00 
1932.10 

150 
$   1184.23 
8661  60 

General  expenses 
Materials     .    .    . 
Totals     .... 

2301.84 
3518.87 
14482.31 
4970.00 
9512-31 

Credits   .... 
Net  totals    .    .    . 

Cost  per  pupil     . 

58.84 

79.24 

92.34 

72.75 

38.64 

6341 

The  Newton  Independent  Industrial  School 

The  reasons  advanced  for  establishing  the  Newton  Independ- 
ent Industrial  School  are  those  with  which  we  have  now  become 
familiar,  but  in  this  case  they  gain  peculiar  significance.  If  there 
is  a  city  in  the  United  States  which  does  not  need  a  school  of 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      143 

this  type,  Newton,  Massachusetts,  a  wealthy  residential  city, 
might  safely  be  said  to  be  the  one. 

Ayres's  Table  32,  showing  the  percentage  of  pupils  retained 
to  the  fourth  year  of  the  high  school  in  fifty-two  cities,  places 
Newton  at  the  head  of  the  list,  with  38  per  cent,  its  next  com- 
petitor being  Waltham,  Massachusetts,  with  29  per  cent.  This 
remarkable  rating  is  more  clearly  seen  by  comparison  with  a  few 
other  cities  taken  from  the  list ;  Cleveland  having  only  10  per 
cent,  Baltimore  6  per  cent,  Chicago  5  per  cent,  and  New  York 
3  per  cent.  This  percentage  so  exceeds  that  of  any  other  city 
in  the  country  as  to  place  Newton  in  a  class  by  itself.  Notwith- 
standing this  fact,  the  city  had  just  erected  a  magnificent  Tech- 
nical High  School  building.  It  would  seem  to  the  casual  observer 
as  if  the  educational  opportunities  were  all  that  could  reason- 
ably be  asked,  but  the  superintendent  saw  that  the  Independent 
Industrial  School  was  needed  also  —  a  fact  since  thoroughly 
demonstrated. 

The  school  was  authorized  by  the  city  government  in  January, 
1909.  It  was  opened  February  i,  in  one  of  the  grammar-school 
buildings,  but  was  moved  in  September  to  its  present  quarters,  a 
six-room  building  on  the  corner  of  Watertown  and  Bridge  Streets. 

There  were  fifteen  pupils  and  one  instructor,  and  the  work 
was  such  as  could  be  done  in  one  woodworking  room  and  one 
classroom. 

In  December  two  more  teachers  were  added,  and  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  increased  to  forty-five.  The  machine-shop  equipment 
was  installed  in  December  and  January,  all  of  the  work  being 
done  by  the  pupils.  This  equipment  consisted  of  a  5  h.  p.  motor, 
I  engine  lathe,  i  speed  lathe,  i  metal  planer,  and  a  combina- 
tion woodworking  machine.  The  woodworking  equipment  was 
an  old  manual-training  outfit  borrowed  from  a  Newton  school. 
Such  was  the  humble  beginning  of  an  extremely  valuable  ex- 
ample of  the  separate,  or  independent,  industrial  school. 


144       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

The  school  is  open  to  boys  at  least  fourteen  years  of  age 
who  would  probably  not  enter  the  high  school.  The  courses 
cover  three  years,  and  at  the  beginning  devote  about  one  half 
the  time  to  book  work  and  drawing,  and  one  half  to  shop  work. 
As  the  course  advances,  the  time  for  shop  work  is  increased. 
A  pupil  is  given  an  opportunity  to  try  each  of  several  kinds  of 
work,  until  he  finds  the  trade  for  which  he  seems  best  adapted, 
and  then  is  encouraged  to  specialize  in  that  trade.  The  work 
offered  is  carpentry,  cabinetmaking  and  pattern  making,  machine- 
shop  practice,  electrical  construction,  sheet-metal  working,  and 
printing. 

The  courses  in  the  related  book  work  and  drawing  follow : 

Mechanical  drawing.  This  course  is  primarily  shop  drawing  and  ma- 
chine sketching.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  course  the  drawing  is  related 
directly  to  the  trade  in  which  the  pupil  is  specializing. 

Mathematics.  The  instruction  in  arithmetic,  elementary  algebra,  and 
geometry  is  intended  to  give  the  industrial  essentials  of  mathematics. 
Special  emphasis  is  given  to  square  root,  proportion,  mensuration,  formulae, 
and  the  use  of  logarithms.  Free  use  is  made  of  mechanics'  and  engineers' 
handbooks  for  formulae  and  tables.  Examples  are  taken  from  shop  work 
as  far  as  possible. 

English.  The  purpose  of  the  English  instruction  is  to  give  facility  in 
reading  and  writing  orders  and  business  letters,  and  the  taking  of  shop 
notes ;  to  develop  ability  to  consult  sources  of  information  along  mechanical 
lines ;  and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  cultivate  an  appreciation  of  good  literature. 

Commercial  geography.  Pupils  study  the  sources  of  the  common  mate- 
rials, and  the  economic  features  of  the  countries  of  the  world,  trade  routes,  etc. 

Science.  The  science  given  is  related  in  a  practical  way  to  the  shop 
subjects. 

History.  This  shows  the  industrial  and  economic  development  of  man- 
kind from  the  earliest  time  to  the  present,  giving  special  attention  to  the 
marvelous  progress  during  the  last  century,  and  to  the  industrial  history  of 
the  United  States.  Biographies  of  the  great  leaders  in  science,  invention, 
and  commerce  are  studied  and  written. 

Government.  The  history  leads  to  a  study  of  the  political  conditions 
of  the  present  time,  and  to  some  consideration  of  the  great  problems  of 
labor  and  society. 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      145 

The  school  is  committed  to  the  poUcy  of  turning  out  a  real 
product.  As  each  passing  month  sees  some  new  practical  out- 
come of  its  work,  it  is  difficult  to  do  entire  justice  to  the  ver- 
satility and  energy  displayed  by  the  school's  managers.  Some 
of  the  things  which  they  have  accomplished  are  as  follows. 

WORK  DONE  BY  PUPILS  SINCE  SEPTEMBER  12,  1909 
For  the  Industrial  School 

For  the  -woodworking  shop.  4  sawhorses,  3  sandpaper  boxes,  1 2  nail 
boxes,  rack  for  bits,  1 2  chisel  handles,  oilstone  shelf,  lumber  racks ;  built 
tool  room ;  installed  lathe,  handsaw,  and  jointer. 

For  the  machine  shop.  40  file  handles,  \  pair  of  cone  centers,  i  face 
plate,  10  pairs  of  calipers,  10  riveting  hammers,  2  collar  arbors,  long  parallel 
for  planer,  6  planer  stops,  6  clamps,  1 2  planer  jacks,  1 2  bench  plates,  3  nut 
arbors.  Built  benches,  motor  shelf,  tool  room,  cabinet  for  tool  room ;  put 
up  timbers  for  shaftings ;  rebuilt  gas  engine  (two-cylinder,  four-cycle,  1 2  h.  p.). 

Patterns  made.  Gas-forge  plate,  motor  frame,  planer  jack,  lathe  attach- 
ment (three  patterns),  shifter  guide  for  band  saw,  surface  plate,  shipper  arm, 
face  plate,  angle  irons,  bench  blocks,  driving  pulley  for  motor,  lathe  dog ; 
gas-engine  patterns  as  follows :  valve-rod  guide,  fly  wheel,  clutch,  thrust 
bearing,  starting  crank,  carburetor  inlet;  saw  gauge  (four  patterns);  com- 
bination punch  and  shear  (four  patterns) ;  polishing  disk ;  stakes  for  sheet 
metal  (eight  patterns) ;  gas  forge  (three  patterns) ;  tool  stand  ;  arbor  press ; 
grindstone  outfit  (six  patterns) ;  tail-vise  outfit  (five  patterns) ;  bench  lathe 
(twenty  patterns) ;  bookbinding  press  (six  patterns). 

For  the  electricity  room.  20  individual  experimenting  cases,  30  spools 
for  magnets,  30  square  switch  bases,  24  round  switch  bases,  30  square  push- 
button cases,  15  round  push-button  cases,  4  wiring  stands,  denronstration 
table,  box  for  wire,  4  turned  cast-iron  cores  for  magnets. 

For  the  study  room.  2  wastebaskets,  finished  over  1 2  seats  and  desks, 
bookshelves. 

For  the  office.   Filing  cabinet  with  7  drawers,  bookshelves,  wastebasket. 

For  the  drawing  room.  9  drawing  tables,  i  blue-print  frame,  3  boxes, 
18  ink-bottle  stands,  18  drawing  boards,  18  T-squares,  projection  cage, 
wastebasket,  large  drawing  board. 

For  the  printing  room.  4  type-case  stands,  7  galleys,  imposing  table, 
cabinet  for  galleys  and  supplies,  cabinet  for  press  equipment. 

For  molding  equipment.  10  two-part  flasks,  10  bench  rammers,  10 
trowel  handles,  30  sprues,  30  vent-wire  handles,  10  rapping  mallets. 


146       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

For  the  sheet-metal  shop.  6  benches  for  two  pupils  each,  i  small  bench 
for  filing  vises,  10  tool  racks,  10  boxes  for  solder,  3  stakeholders  of  oak, 

3  patterns  for  hatchet  stakes,  2  patterns  for  square  stakes,  1  pattern  for 
bottom  stakes,  1 5  mallets,  i  o  scratch  awls,  1 1  small  hammers,  4  large  ham- 
mers, 4  raising  hammers,  4  peen  hammers,  1 2  file  handles,  7  round  stakes 
made  from  gas  pipes,  three  large  stakeholders,  repairs  on  old  table  which 
is  used  for  stake  support. 

For  the  Newton  Free  Library,    i  fourfold  cabinet  screen. 

For  the  Public  Schools 

For  the  Horace  Mann  School,  i  pair  jumping  stands,  i  filing  cabinet 
with  6  drawers. 

For  the  Claflin  School,  i  pair  jumping  stands,  i  filing  cabinet  with  6 
drawers. 

For  the  Hyde  School,    i  sand  table  ten  feet  long. 

For  the  Emerson  School,    i  modeling  table,  i  blackboard  stool. 

For  the  Steams  School.    72  garden  stakes,  i  aquarium. 

For  the  Technical  High  School.  36  cast-iron  bench  blocks  finished  all 
over,  I  motor  pulley  (pattern  and  machine  work) . 

Objects  made  in  the  tinsmith  shop.  6  funnels,  6  pint  measures,  i  quart 
measure,  i  tank  for  paintbrushes,  covered  table  for  printing  room  with 
sheet  zinc,    2  templates  for  punching  notebook  sheets. 

Printing  jobs  done  for  the  School  Department  since  February  20,  igii. 
600  job  cards;   300  machine  job  lists,  8|"  x  11";    3500  circular  letters, 

4  pages,  9"  X  12";  1000  grammar-school  graduates'  certification  blanks, 
8^"  X  1 1";  800  catalogues  of  grammar-school  textbooks,  18  pages ;  300  cata- 
logues of  high-school  textbooks,  1 3  pages ;    200  combination  of  last  two, 

31  pages;  6000  school-report  circulars,  6"  x  9";  800  rules  and  regulations. 

32  pages*,  1300  graduation  programs  for  high  school,  1 2  pages ;  1000  manila 
envelopes,  7"  x  10^";  500  garden-inspection  cards.  For  this  work  the  Indus- 
trial School  has  been  credited  over  $300  by  the  school  department. 

The  work  in  printing  was  originally  established  on  account 
of  its  educational  value,  but  it  rapidly  assumed  a  vocational 
importance  in  the  school,  and  now,  with  a  practical  printer  in 
charge,  forms  one  of  the  departments.  The  school  prints  a 
small  paper  called  Indjistry,  and  the  following  quotations  from 
it,  written  by  pupils,  are  given  partly  for  the  information  which 
they  contain  and  partly  because  they  illustrate  the  work. 


INDUSTRY 

Published  by  the  Pupils  of  the 

Newton  Independent  Industrial  School 
Newton,  Massachusetts 


Volume  I  MARCH,   1911  Number  3 

Two  Years  of  Work 

Our  School  is  now  in  the  third  year  of  its  existence.  The  two 
years  already  spent  have  been  years  of  steady,  vigorous  growth  and 
development.  From  our  beginning  in  a  spare  room  in  the  Stearns 
Grammar  School,  with  the  use  of  the  traditional  manual-training 
equipment,  we  now  have  a  whole  building  with  machine  shop,  pattern 
shop,  tin  shop,  printing  office,  drafting  room,  and  assembly  room. 
The  one  teacher  who  met  the  class  on  that  cold  morning  the  first 
day  of  February  two  years  ago,  is  now  assisted  by  three  other  men, 
all  of  whom  are  thorough  mechanics  in  their  respective  trades.  The 
number  of  pupils  has  increased  from  fifteen  to  fifty-five,  with  several 
applicants  waiting  for  admission. 

One  aim  of  this  school  was  to  keep  in  school  as  many  as  possible 
of  the  large  number  of  boys  who  leave  at  the  age  of  fourteen  or 
fifteen  to  go  to  work.  Our  success  in  this  respect  is  apparent  from 
the  fact  that  ten  of  the  original  fifteen  boys  are  still  with  us,  while 
one  is  in  the  Technical  High  School  and  another  in  the  Classical 
High  School.  This  makes  a  loss  to  the  school  system  of  only  twenty 
per  cent  in  two  years  —  a  remarkable  record  when  we  consider 
that  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  Industrial  School,  hardly  twenty 
per  cent  of  this  number  would  now  be  in  school  at  all.  Moreover, 
every  boy  in  the  advanced  class  has  definitely  chosen  his  trade  and 
is  specializing  in  it  —  five  in  pattern  making,  two  in  electricity,  and 
the  rest  in  machine  work. 

Our  third  year  begins  with  greater  promise  than  ever.  The  new 
instructor  and  new  equipment  for  printing,  the  installation  of  the 
sheet-metal  equipment,  new  machinery  in  the  wood  shop,  and  in- 
creased facilities  in  the  machine  shop,  all  make  possible  better  work 
and  greater  opportunity  for  each  pupil  in  the  school. 

147 


148       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

OUR  SHEET-METAL  SHOP  EQUIPMENT 
George  L.  Veno 

The  greater  part  of  the  equipment  in  the  sheet-metal  department  has 
been  made  by  the  pupils,  who  have  thus  gained  valuable  experience  and 
also  saved  the  school  considerable  expense.  The  equipment  was  made  in 
two  departments  of  the  school,  the  woodworking  department  and  the  ma- 
chine department.  In  the  woodworking  department  there  were  made  five 
benches,  one  stock  table,  twelve  riveting-hammer  handles,  twelve  mallets, 
twelve  tool  racks,  twelve  awls,  six  boxes  for  miscellaneous  work,  patterns  for 
one  anvil,  and  six  different  stakes.  The  following  were  made  in  the  machine 
department :  twelve  riveting  hammers,  twelve  tinsmith  hammers,  and  twenty- 
four  punches.  The  gas  piping  was  also  done  by  the  machinists.  The  equip- 
ment purchased  by  the  school  consists  of  six  gas  forges,  twelve  soldering 
irons,  and  two  machines  for  sheet-metal  forging. 

This  department  is  now  in  complete  working  order.  Two  boys  can  work 
at  each  bench  and  are  provided  with  all  the  tools  needed.  The  boys  taking 
up  sheet  metal  have  worked  very  hard  in  getting  the  equipment  in  place 
and  preparing  this  shop  for  work.  Mr.  Froling,  our  drafting  teacher,  has 
charge  of  this  department. 

WIRING  FOR  ELECTRIC  LIGHTS 

James  Fell 

We  were  greatly  in  need  of  more  light  in  our  building,  and  the  fact  that 
the  boys  were  taking  up  electricity  here  and  had  an  instructor  that  under- 
stood this  science  made  it  seem  unnecessary  to  hire  a  contractor  to  do  the 
job  when  we  could  do  it  just  as  well.  We  began  the  work  of  wiring,  and, 
with  the  instruction  of  our  teacher,  have  learned  something  that  will  be  val- 
uable to  us  when  we  start  working  at  our  trade. 

An  entertainment  was  to  be  held  at  the  Technical  High  School  on  the 
evening  of  March  24.  This  necessitated  more  light  in  order  that  the  pupils 
there  could  work.  We  got  along  so  well  with  the  wiring  in  our  own  school 
that  we  were  sent  to  the  Technical  High  School  to  do  this  temporary  wiring. 

CERTIFICATES  AND  DIPLOMASFROM  THE 
INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL 

Superintendent  Spaulding  recently  visited  our  school  and  made  an- 
nouncements regarding  the  matter  of  certificates  and  diplomas  for  I  ndustrial 
School  pupils. 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      149 

Any  pupil  who  has  completed  the  sixth  grade  in  the  grammar  school  and 
does  two  years  of  satisfactory  work  in  the  Industrial  School  will  be  given 
the  regular  grammar-school  diploma  from  the  school  from  which  he  came, 
the  two  years  here  being  regarded  as  the  equivalent  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  in  the  grammar  school.  Upon  completing  the  three  years' 
course  here,  the  pupil  is  given  a  certificate  stating  this  fact  and  indicating 
the  trade  in  which  he  has  specialized.  In  order  to  secure  the  final  diploma 
from  the  Industrial  School,  it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to  work  for  a  year  in 
a  shop  approved  by  the  school,  during  which  time  he  shall  send  in  weekly 
written  reports  to  the  school,  describing  the  progress  of  his  shop  work, 
wages  received,  etc.  If  the  year's  work  has  been  satisfactory  to  the  employer, 
the  diploma  will  be  granted. 

The  Manhattan  Trade  School,  New  York  City  ^ 

This  trade  school  for  girls  is  now  a  part  of  the  public-school 
system  of  New  York  City.  Its  early  history  as  a  privately  sup- 
ported institution  is  of  absorbing  interest,  and  has  been  tersely 
written  by  Mrs.  Mary  Schenck  Woolman,  in  her  book  entitled 
"The  Making  of  a  Trade  School."  In  this  volume  she  gives 
an  interesting  account  of  the  first  experiment  in  the  United 
States  to  deal  in  an  adequate  way  with  the  problem  of  furnishing 
vocational  training  and  guidance  to  children  destined  to  enter 
industrial  life,  otherwise  wholly  unprepared,  at  the  earliest 
possible  age. 

The  aim  of  the  school  is  frankly  stated  to  be  the  giving  of 
help  to  the  youngest  wage  earners,  but  its  ideals  are  of  consid- 
erable breadth.  They  are  to  demonstrate  to  the  community  what 
education  is  needed  for  "the  lowest  rank  of  women  workers" 
in  order  that  a  girl  may  become  self-supporting  and  adaptable, 
"understand  her  relation  to  her  employer,  to  her  fellow  workers, 
and  to  her  product,"  and  value  health  and  moral  and  intellectual 
development. 

The  necessity  for  this  effort  was  found  in  the  unfortunate 
social  and  economic  conditions,  and  especially  in  the  lack  of 

1  See  p.  130. 


I50       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

opportunity  for  progressive  work.  "After  several  years  spent 
in  the  market"  the  girl  was  found  to  be  little  better  off  than 
on  her  entrance  into  industrial  life. 

After  investigation,  trades  were  selected  in  which  are  used 
the  sewing  machine  (foot  and  electric  power),  the  paintbrush, 
paste  brush,  and  needle.  In  organizing  instruction  all  unneces- 
sary waste  was  eliminated  ;  short,  intensive  courses  were  planned 
to  give  knowledge  and  skill  in  the  technical  aspects  of  the 
selected  trade,  and  to  develop  mental  alertness  on  the  part  of  the 
worker.  It  has  been  observed  that "  the  academic  dullness  which 
is  shown  at  entrance  comes  frequently  from  lack  of  motive  in 
former  studies."  The  fundamental  importance  of  health  and  the 
value  of  trade  art  as  a  help  to  progress  are  given  special  emphasis. 

The  supreme  value  of  the  school's  trade-order  business,  as  an 
educational  asset,  is  shown  in  the  following  quotation :  "It  pro- 
vides the  student  with  adequate  experience  on  classes  of  material 
used  in  the  best  workrooms  ;  these  girls  could  not  purchase  such 
materials  and  the  school  could  not  afford  to  buy  them  for  prac- 
tice. The  ordinary  conditions  in  both  the  wholesale  and  the 
custom  trade  are  thus  made  a  fundamental  part  of  instruction. 
Reality  of  this  kind  helps  the  supervisor  to  judge  the  product 
from  its  trade  value,  and  the  teaching  from  the  kind  of  workers 
turned  out.  Through  the  business  relation  the  student  quickly 
feels  the  necessity  of  good  finish,  rapid  work,  and  responsibility 
to  deliver  on  time.  The  businesslike  appearance  of  the  shop  at 
work  on  the  orders,  and  the  experience  trade  has  had  with  the 
product,  have  increased  the  confidence  of  employers  of  labor  in 
the  ability  of  the  school  to  train  practical  workers  for  the  trades. 
.  .  .  The  business  organization  and  management  required  in 
the  adequate  conduct  of  a  large  order  department  can  itself  be 
utilized  for  educational  purposes." 

A  chapter  devoted  to  representative  problems  makes  an 
illuminating  analysis  of  the  difficulties  which  must  be  met  and 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      151 

solved  by  those  organizing  schools  for  workers  in  the  lower 
grades  of  industry.  While  the  instruction  must  be  direct  and 
specific,  some  preliminary  general  training  is  needed,  and  work 
intended  to  awaken  vocational  interests  should  also  be  provided. 
Mrs.  Woolman  believes  that  all  this  might  and  should  be  given 
in  the  public  elementary  school.  Other  difficulties  are  the  keep- 
ing of  the  school  organization  flexible  and  sensitive  to  ever- 
changing  trade  conditions,  and  in  "  close  contact  with  industrial 
and  social  organizations  of  workers  in  settlements,  clubs,  societies, 
and  unions,  that  all  phases  of  the  wage  earner's  life  —  pleasures, 
aims,  and  needs  —  may  be  appreciated."  There  is  the  difficulty  of 
securing  suitable  teachers,  and  of  working  in  harmony  with  the 
ideals  of  organized  labor. 

The  present  quarters  and  equipment  of  the  Manhattan  Trade 
School  represent  an  investment  of  about  $200,000. 

Mrs.  Woolman's  book  is  condensed  experience,  and,  as  such, 
is  an  epitome  of  the  present  movement  for  vocational  education. 
This  experience  has  had  great  influence  on  the  organization  and 
methods  of  the  new  industrial  schools  of  the  country,  and  the 
principles  for  which  it  has  stood  from  the  beginning  have  gained 
wide  acceptance  during  the  last  three  years. 

The  Secondary  Industrial  School,  Columbus,  Georgia 

This  was  the  first  school  of  its  kind  in  the  United  States  to  be 
established  as  a  part  of  the  public-school  system  and  supported  by 
public  funds.  It  was  established  in  1906,  and  offers  courses  in  the 
mechanic  arts,  textile  arts,  domestic  arts,  and  business  training. 

While  its  name  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  might  be 
classed  as  a  technical  high  school,  an  examination  of  its  entrance 
requirements  and  courses  of  study  will  show  that,  though  "  sec- 
ondary," it  is  not  conventionally  a  "high"  school.  The  gradu- 
ates, however,  are  admitted  to  the  technological  schools  of 
Georgia  and  Alabama  on  extremely  favorable  terms. 


152       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

A  report  of  the  public  schools  of  Columbus  for  19 lo  states  the 
aim  and  the  scope  of  the  Secondary  Industrial  School  as  follows  : 

THE  AIM 

The  aim  of  the  Secondary  Industrial  School  is  to  prepare  the  youth  of 
Columbus  and  vicinity  for  intelligent  and  efficient  service,  and  for  good 
earning  power  in  business  life  or  the  more  important  industries. 

It  is  a  trade  school,  and  more;  it  is  an  academic-trade  school  of  high- 
school  rank.  This  means  that  the  essentials  of  a  high-school  course  are 
given  and  a  trade  is  taught.  Under  the  head  of  essentials  are  included  the 
usual  high-school  studies  in  mathematics,  English,  history,  and  science. 
No  foreign  languages  are  taught.  There  has  never  been  any  intention  of 
teaching  young  people  a  trade  without  good  academic  training.  The  aim 
of  the  school  is  to  give  that  culture,  intelligence,  and  mental  acumen  that 
carries  the  skilled  mechanic  on  to  unlimited  earning  power. 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  ADMISSION 

Applicants  for  admission  to  the  Secondary  Industrial  School  must  be  at 
least  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  must  have  completed  our  sixth  grade  or 
have  reached  a  degree  of  advancement  equal  to  this. 

The  school  is  free  to  boys  and  girls  of  the  city  of  Columbus,  and  open 
to  any  others  upon  the  payment  of  a  tuition  fee.  All  students  are  charged 
$5.00  a  term  for  books,  supplies,  and  working  materials.  In  addition  to 
this  fee,  nonresident  students  pay  $15.00  per  term. 

The  school  desires  only  such  students  as  have  a  definite  purpose  to  re- 
main throughout  the  three-year  course,  complete  the  work,  and  receive  a 
diploma  from  the  school. 

The  school  is  in  session  from  8  A.  m.  to  4  p.  m.  The  session  begins  the 
first  Monday  in  September  and  ends  the  second  Friday  in  July. 

The  apportionment  of  time  among  the  several  subjects  of 
instruction  is  as  follows  : 

First  Year  ''~'L^^'^ 

English  grammar  and  classics 5 

Arithmetic 5 

Elementary  physics 5 

United  States  history,  elementary  algebra,  ^  year  each 5 

20 
Industrial  work 21 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL      153 

Skcond  Year 

Rhetoric  and  classics 5 

Algebra  and  geometry 5 

Elementary  chemistry 5 

Civics,  history  of  western  Europe,  ^  year  each 5 

20 
Industrial  work 20 

Third  Ykar 

Advanced  English,  literature  and  classics,  ^  year ;  physics,  |  year     .     5 

Solid  geometry  and  trigonometry 5 

Chemistry 5 

History  of  western  Europe,  economics,  ^  year  each 5 

20 
Industrial  work 22 

The  courses  are  conducted  by  a  principal  and  five  assistants. 
The  principal,  Mr.  C.  A.  Maupin,  states  that  the  school  is  grow- 
ing steadily  in  popularity,  the  attendance  having  increased  ^6  per 
cent  in  191 1,  and  the  number  of  graduates  having  doubled. 

A  commercial  product  is  turned  out,  and  the  closest  rela- 
tions are  maintained  between  the  school  and  the  business  and 
industrial  interests  of  the  community.  One  interesting  illustra- 
tion of  this  feature  is  given  by  Mr.  Maupin.    He  says  : 

The  graduating  class  is  given  its  final  examination  two  months  before 
the  close  of  school,  and  the  various  members  are  sent  out  to  positions  in 
their  particular  lines,  and  required  to  work  until  graduation  night,  reports 
being  received  from  their  employers  in  regard  to  their  efficiency,  punctu- 
ality, and  application  to  business. 

The  school  has  the  assistance  of  an  advisory  committee. 

Other  schools  of  this  type  which  will  repay  study  are  the 
Albany  Vocational  Schools,  the  New  York  City  Vocational 
School  for  Boys,  the  Girls'  Trade  School,  and  the  Boys' 
Trade  School,  both  of  Boston,  and  the  five  vocational  schools 
of  Buffalo. 


CHAPTER  XII 
VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Vocational  high  schools  differ  from  the  types  previously  de- 
scribed because  they  require,  as  a  foundation,  the  complete  train- 
ing of  the  elementary  school,^  and  because  they  plan  to  give  a 
broader  and  perhaps  a  more  thorough  preparation  for  industrial 
pursuits.  While  carefully  adapting  the  work  to  the  needs  of 
those  who  can  spend  but  two  years  in  the  high  school,  a  four- 
year  course  is  offered  and  very  commonly  followed  by  the  pupils. 

Practices  vary,  but  in  the  larger  cities  the  tendency  is  in  the 
direction  of  maintaining  separate  vocational  high  schools,  as  the 
Stuyvesant  High  School,  New  York  City;  the  High  School  of 
Commerce  (for  boys)  and  the  Practical  Arts  High  School  (for 
girls),  Boston  ;  the  Technical  High  School  and  the  Commercial 
High  School  (for  both  boys  and  girls),  Cleveland  ;  and  the  Lane 
Technical  High  School  (for  boys),  Chicago.  In  the  smaller  cities 
of  the  Middle  West  the  so-called  "cosmopolitan  high  school  "  is 
strongly  supported  as  superior  to  the  separate  vocational  school, 
and,  in  fact,  is  much  more  appropriate  to  the  local  conditions. 

The  work  in  the  several  schools  of  this  type,  now  well  estab- 
lished, is  so  diversified  that  a  full  description  of  it  would  exceed 
the  limits  of  the  plan  of  this  volume.  It  varies  from  instruction  in 
machine-shop  and  foundry  practice,  cabinetmaking,  pattern  mak- 
ing, the  building  trades,  and  electrical  work,  to  home  making 

^  It  is  to  be  noted  that  exceptions  have  appeared  to  this,  the  general  rule, 
and  it  is  believed  that,  before  long,  many  high  schools  will  throw  open  individ- 
ual courses  to  those  who,  having  arrived  at  suitable  age  and  having  ability  to 
follow  these  courses,  yet  fall  short  of  the  completion  of  the  entire  elementary- 
school  program. 

IS4 


VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  155 

and  housekeeping,  domestic  science  and  art,  and  the  designing 
and  executing  of  the  artistic  products  of  the  needleworker  and 
the  costume  designer. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  our  illustrative  school  does  not  in- 
clude work  for  girls,  but  it  is  believed  that  the  principles  in- 
volved are  capable  of  wide,  if  not  universal,  application.  It  may 
also  be  stated  in  passing  that  the  High  School  of  Practical  Arts, 
Boston,  a  high  school  for  girls  only,  presents  in  many  respects 
a  parallel  case.  While  enjoying  the  advantages  of  some  special 
legislation,  it  is,  nevertheless,  a  genuine  high  school  which  has 
succeeded  wonderfully  well  in  meeting  the  individual  needs  of 
all  of  its  pupils.  A  thorough  study  of  this  school  is  advised  for 
all  who  are  interested  in  the  vocational  education  of  women. 

The  Albert  G.  Lane  Technical  High  School,  Chicago 

This  school  is  essentially  a  manual-training  high  school  for 
boys.  As  such,  it  may  seem  to  be  less  appropriately  used  as  an 
illustration  of  the  type  of  vocationalized  high  school,  which  has 
been  advocated  in  the  foregoing  chapters,  than  some  school 
which  differs  materially  from  the  traditional  high  school  in  im- 
portant particulars  of  its  organization  and  management. 

It  is  partly  because  the  "  Lane  Tech,"  as  it  is  locally  known, 
enjoys  few  if  any  advantages  over  other  high  schools  in  the 
country,  —  advantages  of  special  legislation  exempting  from  pre- 
scribed courses  of  study  and  other  inflexible  requirements,  —  and 
yet  has  succeeded  in  differentiating  itself  from  the  rest,  by  the 
spirit  in  which  it  has  carried  out  these  requirements,  that  this 
school  is  selected  as  an  illustrative  example. 

For  the  sake  of  clearness  let  us  note  briefly,  and  by  way  of 
contrast,  the  superior  conditions  under  which  the  Cleveland 
Technical  High  School,  for  example,  works.  This  school  was 
established  on  recommendation  of  a  special  commission  repre- 
senting the  commercial  and    manufacturing   interests   of  the 


156       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

community.  It  has  the  assistance  of  an  advisory  committee 
representative  of  these  interests,  thus  giving  the  school  a  vital 
connection  with  the  commercial  and  industrial  world.  As  a 
result  it  has  a  longer  school  day,  the  possibility  of  a  longer 
school  year  for  pupils  desiring  it,  and  special  opportunities  for 
intensive  vocational  work  in  the  last  year,  including  twenty-five 
hours  a  week  permitted  for  specific  trade  work. 

The  Liine  Technical  High  School  has  been  given  none  of 
these  special  advantages.  So  far  as  courses  of  study,  length  of 
day  or  year,  or  submission  to  fixed  scholastic  standards  are  con- 
cerned, its  plan  is  identical  with  that  of  the  typical  manual- 
training  high  school.  Yet  it  has  been  made  to  serve  the  needs 
of  the  pupils  so  well  that  it  stands  out  distinctly  as  belonging 
to  the  new  type  of  " differentiated  "  or  "motivated  "  high  schools. 

The  Albert  G.  Lane  Technical  High  School  is  an  extremely 
large  school,  numbering  from  1 500  to  1650  pupils.  It  is  Vioused 
in  a  building  constructed  to  accommodate  1 2CX)  and  first  occupied 
in  1908,  when  the  Hoyne  School,  organized  in  1905,  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  new  building,  the  name  of  the  school  being 
changed  within  a  year  to  that  which  it  now  bears.  The  building, 
land,  and  equipment  cost  nearly  a  million  dollars,  and  the  ap- 
pointments are  as  complete  as  could  well  be  expected  in  view 
of  the  rapidly  changing  ideas  regarding  technical  and  industrial 
training  in  high  schools.  That  this  enormous  and  expensive 
plant  is  administered  with  economy  is  shown  by  the  relatively 
low  per  capita  cost  of  about  $8 1 .00  a  year. 

In  1 908- 1 909  and  1909- 19 10  the  Lane  School  offered  the 
usual  four-year  manual-training  course  to  the  boys  of  the  district. 
From  the  beginning,  however,  and  this  marks  the  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  the  school,  the  work  in  each  subject  was  so  re- 
organized and  was  made  so  thoroughly  "practical  "  that  the  boy 
who  was  forced  to  leave  at  the  end  of  the  first  or  second  year 
might  do  so  with  the  conviction  that  he  had  accomplished 


VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  157 

something  of  definite  use  to  himself  in  a  vocational  way.  At  all 
events,  the  interests  and  efforts  of  the  teachers  and  of  the  school 
in  general  were  not  centered  on  the  preparation  of  the  few  who 
were  to  graduate  four  years  hence.  The  needs  of  these  boys 
were  not  overlooked  or  minimized,  but  the  equal  rights  of  the 
others  were  never  forgotten.  It  was  felt  that  preparation  might 
be  combined  with  accomplishment ;  that,  in  fact,  tangible  and 
definite  accomplishment  to-day  was  not  only  good  in  itself,  but 
that  it  served  as  the  very  best  preparation  for  the  progress  of 
to-morrow. 

It  seemed  to  the  writer  that  here  was  the  secret  of  the  won- 
derful success  of  the  school,  the  shifting  of  interest  from  the 
possible  future  graduate  to  the  boy  present  in  the  school  to-day  ; 
from  preparation  for  some  more  or  less  distant  attainment  to  the 
accomplishment  of  some  present  and  immediately  useful  work. 

As  one  passes  through  the  school,  realizing  that  tradition  and 
the  natural  conservatism  of  teachers  must  have  been  as  strong 
here  as  elsewhere,  the  wonder  grows  at  the  influence  which  has 
changed  all  this  to  the  spirit  of  optimistic  confidence  felt  every- 
where in  the  school.  Teachers  and  boys  alike  express  confidence 
in  their  ability  to  solve  any  problem  which  the  practical  demands 
of  the  constructive  work  may  present.  While  called  upon  to  deal 
with  large  classes,  frequently  numbering  forty-five  pupils,  these 
teachers  are  doing,  in  all  branches,  a  type  of  work  which  few  if 
any  schools  in  the  country  five  years  ago  would  have  believed 
possible  for  high-school  pupils. 

Let  us  examine  in  more  detail  the  physical  equipment  of  the 
school,  the  required  course  of  study,  and  the  nature  of  the  work 
done. 

As  before  stated,  it  is  a  large  school.  The  ground  dimensions 
of  the  building  are  331  x  174  feet.  There  are  eighteen  class- 
rooms, a  study  room,  assembly  hall,  a  lunch  room  seating  eight 
hundred,  and  a  gymnasium.    There  are  seven  laboratories  for 


158       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

work  in  physiography,  zoology,  biology,  physics,  and  chemistry, 
with  perfectly  appointed  lecture  and  demonstration  rooms.  There 
are  seven  drawing  rooms  and  the  following  shops : 

A  woodworking  shop  with  seventy-two  double  benches,  a 
grindstone,  band  saw,  circular  saw,  wood-turning  lathe,  and  two 
sets  of  steam-heated  glue  pots.  In  an  adjacent  room  are  a  circular 
saw,  single-surface  planer,  two  band  saws,  a  hand  planer  and 
jointer,  a  boring  machine,  grinder,  and  filing  bench. 

A  wood-turning  shop  equipped  with  twenty-four  benches  and 
lathes,  a  grindstone,  a  wet  grinder,  a  circular  saw,  and  a  band  saw. 

A  pattern  shop  with  twelve  double  benches,  six  speed  lathes, 
two  pattern  makers'  lathes,  a  grindstone,  band  saw,  circular  saw, 
two  wood  trimmers,  steam-heated  glue  pots,  and  a  gluing  table. 
In  the  lecture  rooms  of  the  pattern  and  wood-turning  shops  are 
well-arranged  seats  and  independently  driven  lathes. 

A  foundry,  40  X  80  feet,  accoinmodating  forty-eight  students 
at  one  time,  and  equipped  with  molding  benches,  a  two-ton  cu- 
pola, three  furnaces  for  soft  metals,  grinder,  polisher,  drill  press, 
traveling  crane,  electric  hoist,  gas  furnace,  core,  and  molding 
machines, 

A  forge  shop,  similar  in  size,  with  forty-eight  forges,  and 
anvils,  grindstone,  drill  press,  grinder,  punch  and  shear,  and  a 
two-hundred-and-fifty-pound  steam  hammer.  A  lecture  room 
adjoins. 

A  machine  shop,  60  x  80  feet,  fitted  for  seventy-two  pupils  at 
one  time,  with  an  elaborate  equipment  of  machine  tools,  including 
engine  lathes,  speed  lathes,  drill  presses,  boring  and  turning 
mill,  milling  machines,  shapers,  planers,  and  grinders,  in  great 
variety.    A  lecture  room  and  a  tool  room  adjoin. 

A  chipping  and  filing  room  equipped  to  accommodate  twenty- 
four  students  at  one  time,  and  having,  in  addition  to  the  benches 
and  vises,  a  grindstone,  wet  grinder,  shaper,  drill  press,  and 
tempering  furnace. 


VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  159 

A  pottery  room  equipped  with  a  potter's  wheel  and  kiln,  and 
necessary  tables,  benches,  and  small  tools. 

The  equipment  of  the  electrical-construction  shop  will  be 
given  in  full  later. 

The  course  of  study  is  that  prescribed  by  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. It  accords  so  closely  with  the  traditional  manual-training 
course  that  it  is  perhaps  superfluous  to  give  it,  but  it  is  included 
for  the  sake  of  clearness. 

MANUAL-TRAINING  COURSE 

First  Year 

First  semester  Weeks 

English 20 

Woodworking 20 

Mechanical  drawing 20 

Free-hand  drawing 20 

Algebra 20 

Physiology 20 

Physical  education 20 

Second  semester 

English 20 

Woodworking 20 

Mechanical  drawing 20 

Free-hand  drawing 20 

Algebra 20 

Physiography  (with  special   reference  to  woods 

and  ore) 20 

Physical  education 20 

Second  Year 
First  semester 

English 20 

Foundry,  forge,  and  pattern  making      ....  20 

Mechanical  drawing 20 

Plane  geometry 20 

Physical  education 20 


'eriods 

Credits 

4 

•4 

10 

•5 

4 

•3 

I 

.05 

4 

•4 

5 

•4 

2 

.1 

30 

2.15 

4 

•4 

10 

•5 

4 

•3 

I 

•05 

4 

•4 

5 

•4 

2 

.1 

30 

2.15 

4 

•4 

10 

•5 

4 

•3 

4 

.4 

2 

.1 

24 

1.7 

l6o       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 


Second  semester 

English 20 

Foundry,  forge,  and  pattern  making     ....  20 

Mechanical  drawing 20 

Plane  geometry 20 

Physical  education 20 

Choose  one  of  the  following : 

Foreign  language 40 

Biology 40 

Elementary  physics 40 

Chemistry 40 

If  chemistry  is  not  taken  now,  it  must  be  taken  the 
fourth  year. 


First  semester 

Machine-shop  practice 
English  .... 
Free-hand  drawing 
Mathematics    . 
Physics  .... 
Physical  education 


TiiiKO  Year 


20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 


Second  semester 

Machine-shop  practice 20 

Machine  or  architectural  drawing 20 

Free-hand  drawing 20 

Physics 20 

Mathematics 20 

Physical  education 20 

Choose  one  of  the  following : 

History 40 

Language 40 

Fourth  Year 
First  semester 

United  States  history 20 

Machine  or  architectural  drawing 20 

English ' 20 

Physical  education 20 


4 

•4 

10 

•S 

4 

•3 

4 

.4 

2 

.1 

24 

1.7 

5 

I.O 

5 

I.O 

6 

I.O 

6 

I.O 

4 
I 

4 
6 

2 
25 

8 

4 
I 
6 

4 
2 

25 

4 

5 


4 
3 
4 

'3 


4 
4 

OS 
4 

5 
I 

85 

4 

3 

05 

5 

4 

I 

75 

8 
o 


•4 

.2 

•4 

.1 

i.i 


4 

•4 

3 

_2 

4 

•4 

2 

.1 

3 

I.I 

6 

I.O 

5 

I.O 

4 

•4 

6 

I.O 

4 

•4 

6 

.8 

6 

•5 

6 

•5 

VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  i6l 

Second  semester 

'  Civics 2o 

Machine  or  architectural  drawing 20 

Trigonometry 20 

Physical  education 20 

Electives 

Chemistry 40 

Language 40 

English 20 

Electrical-  or  gas-engine  construction     ....     40 
Electrical-  or  gas-engine  construction     ....     20 

Free-hand  drawing 40 

Advanced  physics 20 

Advanced  chemistry 20 

One  semester  of  English  must  be  chosen  during  this 
year  by  those  who  have  not  taken  a  foreign  language. 

While  the  equipment  and  the  course  of  study  present  little  to 
distinguish  this  school  from  other  manual-training  high  schools 
throughout  the  country,  the  methods  of  organizing  the  material 
and  of  giving  the  instruction  are  believed  by  the  writer  to  be 
peculiar,  or  at  least  to  have  been  given  peculiar  prominence. 
These  methods  dominate  the  work  of  the  whole  school,  but 
perhaps  they  are  most  clearly  shown  in  the  working  out  of  the 
two-year  vocational  course  in  electricity  than  elsewhere,  and  for 
that  reason  both  the  subject  matter  of  the  course  and  the  equip- 
ment of  the  electrical-construction  room  will  be  given  more 
detailed  consideration. 

In  the  fall  of  19 10  the  Board  of  Education  authorized  ten 
different  "two-year  vocational  courses,"  so  called,  to  be  offered 
by  the  several  high  schools  throughout  the  city.  Five  of  these 
were  such  as  might  appropriately  be  offered  in  the  technical 
high  schools,  and  the  Lane  High  organized,  among  others,  a 
course  in  electricity. 

The  course  of  study  prescribed  by  the  board  was  as  follows  : 


1 62        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

TWO-YEAR   COURSE    IN    ELECTRICITY 

First  Year 

First  semester  Weeks      Periods  Credits 

Business  English 20  4  .4 

Algebra 20  4  .4 

I'hysiology 20  5  .4 

Elementary  physics 20  5  .4 

Mechanical  drawing 20  4  ,3 

Free-hand  drawing 20  2 

Physical  education 20  2 

26 
Second  semester 

Business  English 20  4 

Algebra 20  4 

Elementary  electricity 20  8 

Mechanical  drawing 20  4 

Free-hand  drawing 20  2 

Physical  education 20  2 

24 
Second  Year 
First  semester 

English 20  4 

or  other  modern  language 20  5 

Geometry,  or  history  with  special  reference  to 

industrial  and  economic  conditions,  and  civics  20  4 

Applied  electricity 20  10 

Mechanical  drawing 20  4 

Free-hand  drawing 20  2 

Physical  education    .    ' 20  2 

26 

Second  semester  ' 

English 20  4 

or  other  modern  language 20  5 

Geometry,  or  history  with  special  reference  to 

industrial  and  economic  conditions,  and  civics       20  4 

Applied  electricity 20  10 

Mechanical  drawing 20  4 

Free-hand  drawing 20  2 

Physical  education 20  2 

26       2.1 
or  27        2. 


VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  163 

While  the  electrical-construction  shop  is  not  used  exclusively 
by  this  class,  having  been  equipped  for  fourth-year  work,  its 
facilities  are  utilized  for  important  portions  of  the  instruction  of 
this  class,  and  therefore  a  complete  description  of  its  equipment 
is  to  the  point. 

The  electrical-construction  shop  is  equipped  with  vise  benches  similar  to 
those  in  the  chipping  and  filing  room,  and  cases  for  the  reception  of  arma- 
tures, and  other  pieces  under  construction.  The  tool  room,  adjoining  the 
construction  shop,  is  furnished  with  cases  and  shelving  for  construction  of 
motors,  generators,  arc  lights,  etc.  Adjoining  this  room  is  a  planing  room 
equipped  with  vats  used  in  the  electroplating  of  finished  work. 

This  shop  is  equipped  with  the  following  machines : 

I    14"  Gould  &  Eberhardt  shaper. 

I   No.  1 1  Brown  &  Sharpe  universal  milling  machine. 

4  12"  X  6'  Reed  engine  lathes,  one  equipped  with  turret  head. 

I    1 2"  X  6'  Hendey  engine  lathe,  electric  driven. 

I    14"  three-«pindle  Henry  &  Wright  sensitive  drill. 

I    14"  one-spindle  Henry  &  Wright  sensitive  drill,  electric  driven. 

I   Wiley  winding  machine. 

I    E.  M.  Bliss  &  Co.'s  circle  shear,  electric  driven. 

I  circular  metal  saw. 

I    1 2"  Star  power  hack  saw. 

I   No.  5  Walsh  inclinable  punch  press  with  open  back,  motor  driven. 

I    No.  19  Bliss  armature  disk  slotter,  motor  driven. 

I    14"  Ransom  double-dry  grinder. 

I    24"  Leland  &  Falconer  single  wet  grinder,  motor  driven. 

I   39"  X  5"  grindstone,  with  Brown  &  Sharpe  trough  and  truing  device. 

The  lecture  and  testing  room  is  furnished  with  a  motor-generator 
set,  which  gives  the  following  electrical  currents :  4  to  8  low  voltage, 
direct  current ;  1 1  o  direct  current ;  80  alternating  current ;  i  -,  2-,  and 
3-phase  currents.  These  currents,  in  conjunction  with  the  house  current 
of  200  volts  direct  current,  give  a  wide  range  for  the  testing  of  machin- 
ery, instruments,  lamps,  etc.  In  conjunction  with  these  rooms  is  a  dark 
room  for  the  storage  of  cells  and  the  setting  up  of  instruments  for  the 
measurement  of  light. 

Even  more  pertinent  and  illuminating  are  the  notes  which 
were  prepared  in  the  school  to  be  used  as  a  basis  for  the 
courses. 


1 64       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

NOTES   TO    BE   USED    AS   THE   BASIS   OF   A   TWO-VEAR 
VOCATIONAL   COURSE   IN   ELECTRICITY  i 

Physics  —  First  Semester 

General  notes.  Give  only  such  work  as  will  be  of  value  as  a  basis  for 
the  courses  in  electricity  and  electrical  construction  which  are  to  follow. 
(This  is  as  much  as  can  be  assimilated,  and  it  will  be  of  value  even  if  the 
electrical  courses  are  not  taken.) 

Study  the  English  and  metric  units  of  length,  omitting  the  decimeter 
and  all  metric  units  greater  than  the  meter. 

Memorize  2.54  cm.  per  inch,  39.37  in.  per  meter.  Study  areas  and  vol- 
umes, particularly  of  cylinders. 

Memorize  6.45  cm.    per  square  inch,  16.39  cm.^  per  cubic  inch. 

Density.  Instead  of  actually  finding  the  density,  find  the  weight  by 
determining  the  volume  and  using  the  known  density,  as  in  practice  that  is 
the  problem. 

Memorize  the  density  of  water,  iron,  copper,  aluminum. 

Hardness.  Show  experimentally  the  hardening  and  tempering  of  steel, 
the  hardening  of  brass  and  other  metals,  and  the  annealing  of  iron,  steel, 
aluminum,  and  other  metals.  These  experiments  will  serve  as  a  basis  for 
the  study  of  magnetism  and  electromagnets,  the  use  of  tools,  and  the 
spinning,  punching,  and  general  manipulation  of  metals. 

Memorize  the  relative  hardnesses  of  the  common  metals. 

Elasticity.  Study  springs  for  making  electric  contact  of  steel,  brass,' 
phosphor  bronze,  etc.    Use  as  basis  for  the  study  of  condensers. 

Tenacity  of  iron,  steel,  brass,  copper,  aluminum,  lead,  etc.,  as  bearing 
on  supporting  wires  for  copper  conductors,  with  and  without  lead  covers ; 
the  relative  merits  of  copper  and  aluminum  for  conductors;  binding  wires 
for  armatures  of  brass  and  steel  wire,  etc. 

Ductility.,  with  particular  reference  to  wires  of  brass,  copper,  aluminum, 
German  silver,  platinum,  and  resistance  wires. 

Cohesion.  Experimental  work  as  far  as  possible  on  soldering,  galva- 
nizing, electroplating,  brazing,  shellacking,  gluing,  enameling,  painting, 
emphasizing  the  need  of  clean  surfaces,  fluxes,  etc. 

Brittleness.  Glass,  porcelain,  lava,  marble,  slate,  vulcanized  fiber  and 
rubber,  asbestos  wood,  and  other  insulators. 

Force.  Use  the  dyne  and  gram,  but  without  defining  the  dyne  except 
as  1/980  of  the  gram. 

*  By  Ernest  J.  Andrews,  head  of  Department  of  Electrical  Construction, 
I^ne  Technical  High  School. 


VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  165 

Composition  of  forces  in  the  same  and  opposite  directions,  and  at  angles, 
as  a  basis  for  electromotive  forces  in  series,  counter  electromotive  forces, 
and  alternating  electromotive  forces  of  various  phases. 

Motion  at  least  to  the  extent  of  making  clear  peripheral  speed,  omitting . 
acceleration. 

Gravity  (very  elementary).  Nothing  on  falling  bodies  or  the  exact  laws 
of  gravity. 

Inertia  as  a  basis  for  inductance,  bringing  out  the  constant  conflict 
between  force  and  inertia,  force  tending  to  change  motion  and  inertia 
tending  to  keep  it  constant ;  particularly,  as  an  incident  of  this,  centrifugal 
force,  as  bearing  on  the  disruption  of  armatures,  etc. 

Peiiduluins^  to  the  extent  of  emphasizing  and  elucidating  the  above- 
mentioned  conflict,  and  as  a  basis  for  the  study  of  vibrations  of  tremblers, 
sound  waves,  telephone  disks,  etc. 

Work^  energy,  and  power.  To  be  studied  as  fully  as  possible.  Bring 
out  the  idea  of  torque  and  its  measurement  in  foot  pounds. 

Mac/lines.  To  be  studied  pretty  fully ;  show  how  the  speed  (but  not 
power)  may  be  varied  by  gears  and  belts. 

Friction.     Very  general,  as  a  basis  for  electric  resistance. 

Mechanics  of  liquids.  Flow  of  water  through  pipes  as  a  basis  for 
study  of  electric  current ;  one  is  a  flow  of  molecules  through  tubes,  the  other 
a  flow  of  electrons  through  conductors,  and  the  attendant  phenomena  are 
very  similar.  Study  rate  of  flow  as  a  basis  for  intensity  of  electric  current. 
Study  surface  friction  as  a  basis  for  electric  resistance. 

Water  pressure  and  force  pumps  as  a  basis  for  the  study  of  electro- 
motive force.    Pumps  in  series  and  parallel. 

Mechanics  of  gases  as  a  basis  for  the  study  of  suction  pumps. 

Lift  pumps,  force  pumps,  centrifugal  pumps,  gear  pumps. 

Pyvpellers  and  fans. 

Heat.    The  distinction  between  heat  and  temperature. 

Thermal  expansion  studied  slightly,  mainly  to  explain  thermometer. 
Give  nothing  on  specific  heat. 

Change  of  state  studied  rather  fully,  as  bearing  on  fuses,  solders,  var- 
nishes, and  insulators. 

Conduction  and  convection  (very  elementary)  showing  the  relative  ther- 
mal conductivities  of  substances  used  electrically,  as  bearing  on  electric 
conductivity. 

Radiation  studied  more  fully,  as  bearing  on  the  radiation  of  waste 
heat  from  electric  machines. 

Calorimetry  studied  sufficiently  to  show  the  energy,  nature  of  heat, 
and  the  ratio  of  heat  and  energy  units,  as  bearing  on  electric  waste. 


1 66        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Sound.    Only  such  portions  as  bear  on  sound  vibrations  as  affecting 
alternating  currents,  sounding  disks,  and  electric  oscillations. 
Light.     Omit  practically  all  but  photometry. 
Note.    Electricity  should  be  omitted  during  first  semester. 


Electricity  —  Secono  Semester  ' 

This  course  should  form  a  basis  for  the  course  in  electrical  construction 
to  be  given  the  following  year ;  but  it  should  be  much  broader,  forming  a 
basis  for  future  work  and  study.  The  pupils  should  be  taught  not  the  details 
of  apparatus  and  machines,  but  the  principles  underlying  them,  and  in  such 
a  way  that  they  can  readily  understand  electrical  devices  thereafter  and  will 
have  the  inclination  to  investigate  them.  They  should  be  so  instructed  that 
they  will  be  able  and  willing  to  teach  themselves  after  taking  up  practi- 
cal work ;  emphasis,  however,  should  be  laid  upon  the  principles  that  are 
involved  in  the  work  selected  for  construction. 

The  study  at  first  should  take  up  electric  conductance  and  should  use 
this  as  the  guiding  line  until  the  end.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  course 
electric  inductance  should  be  brought  up,  and  should  go  hand  in  hand  with 
conductance  to  the  end.  Since,  with  pupils  of  this  age,  the  mind  is  unable 
to  grasp  easily  fundamental  principles,  these  should  not  be  made  the  basis 
of  the  work ;  but  before  the  course  ends  every  boy  should  realize  that  every 
electric  phenomenon  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  conductivity  and  the 
inductivity  of  electricity,  and  hence  he  should  have  a  good  grasp  of  the  prin- 
ciples underlying  conductance  and  inductance. 

It  should  be  shown  that  the  conductance  of  electricity  is  simply  a  flow 
of  small  particles  through  the  conductor,  similar  to  the  flow  of  water.  Among 
practical  workers  this  has  been  the  view  for  many  years,  as  indicated  by  the 
expression  "juice"  ;  and,  finally,  science  has  shown  it  to  be  the  correct  view. 
The  subject  should  be  stripped  of  its  cloak  of  mystery,  and  should  be  ex- 
plained in  the  light  of  the  facts  and  definitions  studied  under  physics.  The 
similarity  of  friction  and  resistance  should  be  pointed  out ;  also  of  velocity 
and  current ;  of  elasticity  and  capacity ;  of  springs  and  condensers ;  of  inertia 
and  inductance. 

Omit  static  electricity  altogether. 

Omit  the  study  of  cells  until  all  the  simpler  features  of  conductance  have 
been  considered.  The  flow  of  electricity  through  cells  is  a  complex  process. 
But  one  idea  at  a  Ume  should  be  considered,  all  incidentals,  as  far  as  possible, 
being  omitted. 

1  Eight  periods  per  week. 


VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  167 

Quantitative  experiments  in  this  course  in  electricity  should  not  be  un- 
dertaken. The  experiments  should  be  of  a  qualitative  nature,  the  exact 
facts  being  obtained  from  textbook  or  teacher,  and  then  enough  problems 
should  be  given  to  fix  the  facts  and  the  methods  of  using  them. 

Show  the  effect  of  cells  in  series,  in  parallel,  and  in  series  parallel,  because 
of  the  variations  in  force.  Then,  with  cells  of  considerable  resistance,  such 
as  Daniell's,  show  the  effect  with  cells  in  series,  parallel,  and  series  parallel, 
caused  by  variations  of  internal  resistance.  But  do  not  emphasize  internal 
and  external  resistance  too  much  until  the  pupils  look  at  internal  resistance 
in  the  same  way  as  at  any  other  resistance. 

During  these  experiments  teach  the  pupils  how  to  connect  up  cells  in 
combinations  properly,  according  to  the  following :  Wires  should  be  crossed 
only  when  necessary.  Connections  should  be  firmly  and  neatly  made.  Cells 
should  be  symmetrically  placed,  like  poles  in  corresponding  positions,  and 
wires  should  be  symmetrically  arranged,  so  that  errors  will  be  obvious  and 
the  battery  will  look  well. 

In  this  final  set  of  experiments  the  wiring  should  be  in  all  respects  ac- 
cording to  the  best  practice. 

The  general  distinction  between  the  voltmeter  and  ammeter  should  now 
be  brought  out,  without  studying  their  principles.  Readings  with  each 
should  be  taken,  and  Ohm's  Law  indicated. 

The  idea  of  fall  of  potential  should  then  be  developed. 

By  suitable  experiments  the  following  should  then  be  shown  :  The  flow 
in  any  circuit  is  everywhere  equal.  The  flow  through  parallel  conductors  is 
proportional  to  the  conductance  and  inversely  to  the  resistance.  The  force, 
or  potential  difference,  is  the  same  at  the  terminals  of  each  branch.  The 
difference  in  potential  in  any  portion  of  any  circuit  is  proportional  to  the 
resistance  of  that  portion. 

Explain  the  terms  "  voltage  drop,"  "  line  loss,"  etc. 

Second-class  conductors  should  then  be  taken  up. 

Show  either  by  lecture  or  individual  experiments  that  the  resistance 
decreases  inversely  as  the  cross  section  and  directly  as  the  distance, 
and  with  the  degree  of  saturation,  and  varies  with  the  material  of  the 
conductor. 

Show  the  passage  of  matter  with  the  current,  and  finally  do  some  sim- 
ple work  in  electroplating. 

Study  electrolysis  with  particular  emphasis  on  underground  effects  on 
pipes,  etc. 

Take  up  the  study  of  cells,  particularly  some  dry  cells,  and  Lelanch^'s 
cell  in  its  common  forms.  Introduce  the  idea  of  polarization  and  its  reduc- 
tion.  Then  study  storage  cells. 


1 68       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Confine  this  study  of  second-class  conductors  mainly  to  mere  facts,  giving 
no  theories  or  chemical  processes.  Remember  that  the  materials  of  dry 
cells  are  moist  or  there  would  be  no  force. 

Distinguish  between  these  liquids  and  others. 

Then  take  up  third-class  conductors  or  insulators.  Show  by  lecture 
experiments  that  they  are  conductors  in  a  slight  degree.  Show  that  in 
many  cases  the  enormous  cross  sections  and  voltages,  as  with  long  cables, 
make  considerable  leakage. 

Include  oils  in  this  class.  The  insulating  properties  of  ordinary  oils  are 
in  about  the  following  ratios : 

Melted  paraffin,  8100;  boiled  linseed  oil,  Sooo ;  turpentine  011,6400; 
air,  1670;  crude  lubricating  oil  (mineral  oil),  1600.  These  numbers  give 
the  disruptive  strengths  in  volts  per  millimeter. 

Bring  out  the  effect  of  moisture  on  solid  insulators,  particularly  in  com- 
bination with  dirt. 

Take  up  a  brief  study  of  the  heating  effects  of  current  on  conductors  as 
a  basis  for  elementary  study  of  lights,  heaters,  and  fuses.  Give  problems 
on  wire  capacity. 

Show  that  all  conductors  are  heated  by  the  current,  and  that  this  heat 
represents  the  waste,  and  is  equal  to  I-R.    Consider  lighting  circuits. 

Inductance.  Using  permanent  magnets,  show  by  the  ordinary  methods 
the  simple  laws  of  magnetism. 

Show  that  A  current  passing  over  a  compass  needle  tends  to  deflect  it ; 
that  increasing  the  current  increases  the  tendency ;  that  wherever  the 
needle  is  placed  the  tendency  is  according  to  the  rule:  "  If  the  palm  faces 
the  current,  with  the  fingers  in  its  direction,  the  right  thumb  points  toward 
the  needle's  north  pole." 

Show  that  turns  increase  the  tendency,  and  that  the  law  still  holds  true. 
Show  that  a  coil  acts  like  a  magnet. 

Bring  out  the  fact  that  if  the  wire,  and  hence  the  current,  doubles  on 
itself,  there  is  no  effect. 

Show  that  the  material  of  the  conductor  is  immaterial,  but  that  the 
material  of  the  inside  of  the  coil  affects  the  magnetic  tendency  enormously- 

Bring  out  fully  that  a  change  in  the  current  only  is  necessary  to  cause  a 
magnetic  change ;  but  that  a  change  is  necessary. 

All  of  this  should  be  accompanied  by  simple  problems  in  order  to  fix 
the  facts  and  to  show  how  to  use  them  mathematically.  Thus,  the  magnet 
pull  in  dynes  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  strengths  of  the  poles  divided 
by  the  square  of  the  distance  between  them  in  centimeters. 

They  will  be  able  to  do  only  simple  problems,  and  those  mechanically ; 
but  it  will  fix  the  law. 


VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  169 

Study  electromagnets. 

Take  up  electric  bells,  telephones,  and  wire-telegraph  systems  in  an 
elementary  way. 

Study  circuit  breakers. 

Show  experimentally  the  generation  of  electric  pressure  by  passing  a  wire 
across  a  magnetic  field.  Show  the  increased  effect  by  strengthening  the 
field,  and  also  by  increasing  the  wires  in  series. 

Show  that  it  is  necessary  only  to  change  the  strength  of  field  with  ref- 
erence to  the  wire,  whether  the  wire  moves  or  not. 

The  remainder  of  the  subjects  will  need  to  be  made  very  elementary. 

Study  alternators. 

Show  in  an  elementary  way  the  peculiarities  of  alternating  currents. 

Study  direct-current  generators  and  then  motors. 

Without  attempting  to  make  the  reasons  all  clear,  teach  the  facts  in  ref- 
erence to  control  of  voltage  and  speed. 

Study  motor  starters  and  voltage  and  speed  regulators. 

Study  induction  motors  and  methods  of  starting  and  controlling. 

If  possible,  take  up  3-phase  currents. 

Take  up  lighting  circuits  more  in  detail,  showing  the  three-wire  systems, 
the  economy  of  high  voltages,  balancing  of  three-wire  branches. 

Electrical  Construction 

The  first  portion  of  this  course  should  be  devoted  to  wiring,  beginning 
with  interior  wiring  of  a  simple  nature,  such  as  bells,  signals,  and  telephones. 
Next  take  up  lighting  systems  and  then  power  circuits,  following  with 
switchboard  work.    Then  take  up  outside  wiring  as  far  as  practicable. 

The  work  should  all  be  done  in  the  best  manner,  strictly  following  the 
underwriter's  rules  in  all  cases.  It  should  include  all  forms  of  molding,  con- 
duit, and  insulation  work  that  occur  ordinarily,  special  attention  being  given 
to  sweating  and  wiping  joints. 

The  work,  however,  should  omit  all  straight  portions  of  much  length, 
and  should  be  confined  to  the  difficult  corners  and  connections. 

The  pupils  should  figure  out  the  wire  sizes  and  insulation  and  the 
circuits   as  far  as  possible. 

The  latter  portion  should  take  up  the  construction  and  study  of  some 
simple  apparatus  or  machines,  such  as  induction  coils,  transformers,  or 
small  motors. 

Even  a  cursory  reading  of  these  notes  will  convince  one  that 

this  is  not  a  course  in  "  high-school  physics."    One  is  forced  to 

the  conclusion  that  neither  teacher  nor  pupil  will  find  textbook 


1 70       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

information  or  textbook  experiments  adequate  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  course.  And  this  is  indeed  the  fact,  for  it  is  only 
by  utilizing  the  illustrative  material  afforded  by  actual  electrical 
construction  that  the  requirements  of  the  course  can  be  fully  met. 

And  this  leads  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  shop  or  hand 
work  of  the  school.  It  cannot  be  said  that  nothing  correspond- 
ing to  the  "  logical  progression  of  exercises  "  remains,  but  the 
formal  exercise  has  been  practically  eliminated,  A  real  product 
is  being  made  whenever  possible,  and  it  is  being  demonstrated 
more  and  more  clearly  that  such  work  will  furnish  ample  oppor- 
tunity for  all  the  practice  necessary  for  the  development  of 
technique.  It  has  further  been  demonstrated  that  this  product, 
if  wisely  chosen,  will  also  furnish  the  motive  for  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  theoretical  work  required  in  the  course. 

For  example,  the  pupils  are  engaged  in  the  construction  of  a 
number  of  motor  headstock  speed  lathes  adapted  for  both  wood 
turning  and  hand  metal  work,  and  this  one  project  has  interested 
the  teachers  and  the  pupils  in  several  departments  of  the  school. 
The  drafting  rooms  where  the  lathe  was  designed  and  where  all 
the  shop  drawings  were  made,  the  pattern  shop,  foundry,  ma- 
chine shop  and  electrical-construction  shop,  the  forge  shop  where 
sets  of  turning  tools  have  been  made,  and  the  turning  shop 
which  has  furnished  the  handles  for  these  tools,  and  the  class- 
rooms and  laboratories  where  the  theoretical  phases  of  the  prob- 
lem have  been  considered  —  these  have  all  given  their  quota  of 
help  and  have  received  in  return  their  share  of  the  vitalizing 
effect  of  the  reality  of  the  work. 

The  effects  are  seen  in  several  particulars.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  work  of  this  type  at  once  sets  a  standard  of  workman- 
ship superior  to  that  which  obtains  where  the  product  has  no 
practical  value.  The  interest  of  each  boy  is  widened,  for  while 
all  cannot  work  on  each  part,  the  boys  make  everything  about 
the  lathe  except  the  copper  wire  with  which  the  motor  is  wound, 


VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


171 


and  every  workman  is  interested  in  and  more  or  less  informed 
about  the  completed  machine. 

Such  work  has  its  effect  even  on  the  appearance  of  the  shops. 
They  look  like  real  shops,  well  kept  and  orderly,  but  most  of 
all  busy.  A  spirit  of  industry  pervades  the  place,  rather  than 
the  military,  "  lock-step,"  time-serving  uniformity  which  so  fre- 
quently marked  the  manual-training  schools  of  yesterday.  The 
matter  of  "  discipline  "  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  ;  these  are 
not  schoolboys,  they  are  young  workmen. 

An  interesting  attempt  to  put  his  work  on  a  shop  basis,  as 
far  as  possible  and  for  educational  reasons,  has  been  made  by 
Mr..  Albert  G.  Bauersfeld,  instructor  in  pattern  making.  Effi- 
ciency records  have  been  kept  and  comparisons  made  with  com- 
mercial shops  to  ascertain  the  ratio  of  ability  and  of  money  value 
between  the  pupil  and  the  professional  pattern  maker.  Mr. 
Bauersfeld  describes  the  plan  as  follows : 

A  card  system  has  been  used  in  the  pattern  shop,  which  preserves  a 
complete  record  of  the  time  of  producing  a  pattern,  the  grade  of  workman- 
ship, the  amount  of  material  used,  and  the  amount  wasted  through  the 
error  of  the  student.    Following  is  the  card  : 


JOB. 


LANE  TECHNICAL  HIGH  SCHOOL 

EFFICIENCY  RECORD 

MATERIAL  COST 


Wood- 


Date  Begun- 


Date  Finished- 
Total  Hours 
Workmanship- 


Name 
Room 


-% 


No.  Ft.  in  Job- 


No.  Ft.  Spoiled- 


10  cent  Wage  Per  Hour- 
Total  = 


Instructor 


172 


EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 


For  the  purpose  of  comparison  a  set  of  blue  prints  was  submitted  to 
the  pattern-shup  foreman  of  a  commercial  establishment  for  an  estimate  of 
the  time  it  would  take  a  professional  pattern  maker  to  produce  the  pattern 
for  the  several  parts  of  the  lathe.  This  estimate  is  tabulated  below,  to- 
gether with  data  obtained  from  the  pattern-shop  record  cards. 


TlMB    FOR 

Student 


Front  end  plate  and  cover 

Rear  end  plate 

Yoke 

Bed 

Leg 

Tailstock 

Tailstock  cap 

Tailstock  handwhecl 

Cross  bar  for  tailstock 

Eccentric  clamp 

Clamp  lever 

Frame  for  controller 

Clamp  plate 

3  face  plates 

Tool  post  and  core  bo.x 

Tool-post  slide 

Tool  rest 

Motor  hand  wheel 

r  commutator  shells  1 

4  small  motor  parts  -(  brush  holder  y    . 

[^  pole  shoe  J 

Total 


A  commercial  job  shop  in  Chicago  generally  estimates  about  80  cents  per 
hour  for  labor.  To  produce  these  patterns  in  a  commercial  shop,  therefore, 
would  cost  $10 1. 20  for  labor  and  10  cents  per  board  foot  for  material. 

By  comparing  the  time  required  by  the  expert  with  that  used  by  the 
students  in  producing  the  patterns,  and  by  applying  this  ratio  to  the  pro- 
fessional's price  per  hour,  we  find  that  a  good  second-year  student  is  worth 
about  22^  cents  per  hour,  or  about  $10  per  week.  A  pattern  maker's 
apprentice  receives  $6  per  week  during  his  second  year. 


VOCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  173 

The  factor  of  waste  material  in  tlie  school  workshop  is  necessarily  much 
larger  than  in  a  commercial  shop,  for  obvious  reasons,  and  ranges  from 
25  per  cent  to  33  per  cent. 

The  average  student  in  a  school  pattern  shop  is  able  to  make  an  accept- 
able commercial  pattern  which  will  produce  a  usable  casting,  though,  of 
course,  it  will  not  be  understood  that  his  workmanship  is  equal  to  that  of 
an  experienced  journeyman. 

It  should  not  be  thought  that  the  lathe  is  the  only  problem 
which  has  engaged  the  attention  of  the  school.  Nor  should  it 
be  imagined  that  this  newer  spirit  has  been  "introduced."  Rather 
it  has  been  "  developed,"  and  sometimes  has  been  promoted  by 
necessity.  At  one  time  it  was  necessary  to  start  a  new  class 
in  the  machine  shop,  and  there  were  no  lathe  tools  and  no 
available  funds  with  which  to  purchase  them.  They  were  there- 
fore made  by  the  boys  in  the  forge  shop,  and  were  found  to  be 
satisfactory,  even  if  not  equal  to  the  product  of  the  best  makers. 
One  thousand  sets  of  these  tools  have  been  made  for  use  in 
the  school.  « 

A  lot  of  one  thousand  lockers  is  now  being  projected.  The 
drawings  are  being  made  and  the  necessary  jigs  are  being  de- 
vised. These  lockers  will  not  only  furnish  excellent  work  for 
the  boys,  but  will  also  entail  a  net  saving  to  the  city  of  over 
one  thousand  dollars. 

Principal  William  J.  Bogan  has  become  so  strongly  convinced 
of  the  value  of  this  real  work  that  he  has  offered  to  undertake 
work  for  the  elementary  schools  in  his  district,  providing  the 
projects  are  such  as  can  be  adapted  to  the  educational  require- 
ments of  the  different  courses  of  study  which  are  being  followed 
in  his  school. 

The  school  has  so  few  years  to  its  credit  that  reliable  conclu- 
sions can  hardly  be  drawn  from  its  statistics.  It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  maiiy  of  its  pupils  would  have  attended  no  other  type 
of  high  school,  had  this  been  wanting.  It  is  possible  that  the 
school  will   not  hold  an  appreciably  larger  percentage  of  its 


174       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

pupils  than  high  schools  generally,  but  this  should  be  inter- 
preted in  the  light  of  the  controlling  motive  of  the  school. 
This  is  shown  by  the  following  quotation  from  an  address  given 
by  Principal  Bogan  at  the  dedication  of  the  school,  P'ebruary 
22,  1909  : 

"  I  often  wonder  what  it  is  in  our  make-up  as  teachers  that 
impels  us  to  stand  afar  and  gaze  at  our  work  through  the  tele- 
scope of  tradition  and  precedent,  which  magnifies  the  impor- 
tance of  Greek  and  Latin  arid  ancient  literature,  while  we 
ignore  the  pitiful  sight  of  mankind  on  its  knees  offering  up  the 
prayer  in  all  its  terrible  literalness,  '  Give  us  this  day  our  daily 
bread.'  On  every  side  we  observe  the  heartbreaking  struggles 
of  poverty-stricken  parents  to  provide  their  children  with  a 
means  of  livelihood.  The  miner  risking  his  life  day  afjter  day 
and  year  after  year  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  the  washer- 
woman working  over  the  tub  until  exhausted,  and  the  seamstress 
illustrating  night  by  night  yood's  terrible  '  Song  of  the  Shirt' 
seem  to  lessen  not  our  belief  in  the  desirability  of  teaching 
the  superficialities.  On  ever)'  hand  we  see  parents  wearing  away 
their  lives  in  toil  in  order  that  their  children  may  have  some  of 
the  comforts  and  a  little  of  the  education  which  they  themselves 
have  so  sorely  missed.  To  those  of  us  who  know  that  much  of 
this  labor  is  in  vain,  these  struggles  appeal  with  the  force  of 
tragedy.  For  years  we  have  looked  on  this  spectacle  with  more 
or  less  equanimity  until  at  last  the  children,  by  their  silent  pro- 
tests, by  their  repeated  desertions,  and  by  their  pathetic  failures, 
have  borne  in  upon  us  the  necessity  for  a  great  revolution  in 
education. 

Let  us  then  loose  the  fetters  of  conservatism  that  bind  us  so 
closely  to  the  schools  of  the  past,  and  let  us  fairly  meet  the 
demand  we  can  no  longer  evade." 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  TRADE  SCHOOL 

While  it  is  felt  by  many  that  the  technical  high  school  is 
capable  of  such  extension  and  of  such  close  adjustment  to  indi- 
vidual needs  that  the  trade  school  is  not  a  necessary  part  of  the 
public-school  system,  it  is  probable  that,  for  some  time  to  come, 
the  trade  school  will  fill  local  and  immediate  needs  more  effec- 
tively than  the  high  school. 

The  trade  school,  usually  open  to  boys  and  girls  of  sixteen 
years  of  age  or  over,  witkout  severe  restrictions  as  to  scholastic 
preparation,  bears  somewhat  the  same  relation  to  the  public 
technical  high  school  as  the  intermediate  industrial  school  bears 
to  prevocational  courses  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  of 
the  elementary  school. 

Trade  schools  are  intended  to  be  markedly  practical,  and  they 
devote  a  much  larger  percentage  of  time  to  the  development  of 
special  skill  and  speed,  and  to  the  giving  of  actual  shop  experi- 
ence in  methods  of  production,  than  to  the  consideration  of  the 
related  theory,  knowledge,  and  art.^  Such  schools  are  "finishing  " 
schools  and  prepare  directly  for  some  occupation.  What  the  law 
school  is  to  the  future  lawyer,  or  the  normal  school  is  to  the 
coming  teacher,  the  trade  school  is  to  the  young  man  or  woman 
who  desires  to  become  proficient  as  a  skilled  industrial  worker. 

The  trade  school  being  a  finishing  school,  the  pupil  enters  it 
only  when  he  has  definitely  determined  what  occupation  he 
desires  to  follow.  In  accordance  with  this  conception,  the  trade 
school  eliminates  from  its  courses  of  study  all  irrelevant  matter 

^  See  Manhattan  Trade  School,  p.  130. 
175 


176       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

in  a  way  which  the  conservative  educator  feels  to  be  ruthless 
and  inconsistent  with  the  aims  of  an  institution  which  claims  to 
be  a  "  school." 

The  administrators  of  these  schools,  however,  have  realized 
that,  to  accomplish  their  primary  purpose,  they  must  have  an 
eye  single  to  it,  and  they  have  determined  not  to  add  to  the  al- 
ready large  number  of  young  people  who  "  know  everything 
except  how  to  earn  a  livelihood." 

Within  the  past  five  years  several  public  trade  schools  have 
been  established  or  have  been  taken  over  by  public-school  au- 
thorities after  having  been  successfully  administered  for  a  time 
under  private  control.  Prominent  among  these  may  be  mentioned 
.  the  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  girls,  New  York  City ;  the  Phil- 
adelphia Trades  School ;  the  Milwaukee  School  of  Trades  for 
Boys,  and  the  Milwaukee  School  of  Trades  for  Girls  ;  the  Girls' 
Trade  School,  Boston  ;  the  Portland  School  of  Trades,  Portland, 
Oregon  ;  the  Worcester  Trade  School,  Worcester,  Massachu- 
setts ;  and  the  State  Trade  School,  Bridgeport,  Connecticut. 

The  following  description  of  the  Milwaukee  schools  of  trades 
is  taken  from  a  paper  read  at  the  1 9 1 1  convention  of  the 
Western  Drawing  and  Manual  Training  Association,  by  Mr. 
Charles  F.  Perry,  supervisor  of  indu§trial  education,  Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin. 

MILWAUKEE   PUBLIC   SCHOOLS  OF  TRADES 

The  trade  school  for  boys  first  opened  its  doors  for  pupils  on  January  2, 
1906.  It  is  thus  in  its  sixth  year.  It  was  started  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Merchants'  and  Manufacturers'  Association  of  Milwaukee,  through  the  in- 
itiative of  Mr.  Frederick  W.  Sivyer  in  his  inaugural  address  as  president  of 
the  above  society. 

He  had  been  a  member  of  the  Board  of  City  School  Directors,  and  help>ed 
introduce  manual  training  into  the  Milwaukee  public  schools.  The  trade 
school  was  conducted  under  these  private  auspices  for  one  and  one-half 
years.  The  child  grew  beyond  the  ability  of  its  parent  to  care  for  it.  More- 
over, the  development  of  the  youth  of  a  community  into  efficient  citizens  is 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  1 77 

not  the  function  of  private  individuals,  but  of  municipal  effort  and  taxation. 
Just  as  the  kindergarten  and  manual  training  in  these  United  States  were 
created  through  philanthropic  initiative  and  proved  of  value  to  the  munici- 
pality before  being  adopted  by  it,  just  so  will  trade  schools  be  established 
in  this  country. 

The  Wisconsin  legislature  of  1907  enacted  a  law  making  it  possible  for 
any  city  in  the  state,  desirous  of  establishing  trade  schools,  to  levy  a  tax  not 
to  exceed  one  half  mill  for  that  purpose.  Under  private  auspices  the  tuition 
charge  was  $  i  o  per  month,  and  the  courses  of  apprenticeship  were  approx- 
imately one  year  in  length. 

The  Milwaukee  Board  of  School  Directors  took  advantage  of  the  new 
law,  and  on  August  i,  1907,  "The  Milwaukee  School  of  Trades"  became 
"  The  Milwaukee  Public  School  of  Trades  for  Boys."  Any  trade  school 
which  is  compelled  to  charge  its  pupils  $10  per  month  for  tuition  precludes 
the  very  student  who  should  be  enrolled  on  its  books.  Placing  it  under 
municipal  control  made  possible  the  supplying  of  two  vital  needs — free  tuition 
for  all  students  under  twenty  years  of  age,  and  sufficient  time  in  each  course 
for  a  student  to  complete  a  thorough  apprenticeship.  Under  private  auspices 
two  manufacturing  trades  were  taught,  namely  pattern  making  and  machinist 
and  toolmaking ;  and  one  building  trade,  plumbing  and  gas  fitting.  During 
the  summer  of  1908  another  building  trade  was  added,  namely  a  complete 
carpentry  and  cabinetmaking  apprenticeship. 

The  length  of  each  course  at  present  for  each  trade  except  plumbing  is 
two  years  of  fifty  weeks  per  year,  and  forty-four  hours  per  week,  making 
the  total  apprenticeship  4400  hours.  The  plumbing  trade  requires  one  half 
of  this  time,  or  2200  hours.  If  a  student  shows  a  special  aptitude  and  can 
complete  the  required  amount  of  work  in  less  than  the  prescribed  time,  and 
wishes  his  diploma,  it  is  granted  him.  In  trade  teaching,  each  pupil  is  a 
class  by  himself.  He  may  advance  as  quickly  as  he  pleases,  consistent  with 
the  attaining  of  the  required  standard  of  the  school  in  workmanship. 

The  hours  of  attendance  are  from  8  a.m.  to  12  m.  and  from  i  to  5  p.m. 
daily,  excepting  Saturday  afternoons  and  legal  holidays.  The  school  closes 
for  vacation  the  last  two  weeks  in  July. 

Tuition  is  free  to  boys  who  are  residents  of  Milwaukee,  and  between 
the  ages  of  sixteen  and  twenty.  They  are  required  to  pay  a  material  charge 
of  $1  a  month.  Residents  over  twenty  are  required  to  pay  $5  per  month, 
which  includes  material  charges.  Nonresidents  are  required  to  pay  $  1 5  per 
month,  which  also  includes  material  charges.  Instruction  is  given  in  night 
classes  four  evenings  per  week  from  October  i  to  April  13,  two  hours  each 
evening,  with  charges  as  follows :  residents  between  sixteen  and  twenty, 
tuition  free,  and  50  cents  per  month  for  material  charge;  residents  over 


178       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

twenty,  $1  per  month  for  tuition  and  material;  all  nonresidents,  #4  per 
month  for  tuition  and  material. 

In  the  boys'  school  the  course  of  instruction  in  each  trade  includes  the 
following  five  branches : 

I .  Shop  practice  and  trade  lectures. 

Isometric 


2.   Drawing  - 


Mechanical  drawing  J  forking  drawings 
Problems  in  design 


3.  Workshop  mathematics 

4.  Shop-inspection  trips 


Architectural 
^  Free-hand  working  drawing 

Shop  arithmetic 
Shop  algebra 
Shop  geometry 
Shop  trigonometry 

In  connection  with  each  trip  a  carefully 
written  report  must  be  submitted. 
5.  Practical  talks  and  lectures  on  subjects  connected  with  each  trade, 
and  topics  fundamental  to  all  trades. 

Approximately  one  fourth  of  the  student's  time  during  his  course  is 
devoted  to  academic  instruction  incidental  to  his  trade,  and  vitally  essential 
to  the  first-class  artisan  whom  the  world  needs  and  the  school  is  endeavoring 
to  develop,  the  remaining  three  fourths  being  spent  in  actual  shop  practice. 
Up  to  April  I,  191 1,  the  boys'  school  has  sent  out  thirty-four  graduates, 
subdivided  as  follows : 

Pattern  makers 12 

Machinists  and  toolmakers 12 

Plumbers  and  gas  fitters 10 

The  average  age  of  the  above  thirty-four  graduates  is  2o|  years.  The 
average  length  of  time  since  the  thirty-four  graduates  left  school  is  1 1^ 
months.  The  average  rate  of  pay  of  the  graduates  upon  leaving  school  is 
26  cents  an  hour.  The  average  rate  of  pay  of  the  above  young  men  at 
the  end  of  1 1  ^  months  is  as  follows : 

Pattern  makers 31.8  cents  per  hour 

Machinists  and  toolmakers    ....     32.6  cents  per  hour 

Plumbers 53.2  cents  per  hour 

or  a  general  average  of  39  cents  per  hour.  These  figures  will  compare 
favorably  with  those  of  th^commercial-graduate  apprentice.  The  cost  per 
year  of  the  trade-school  pupil  to  the  city  is  approximately  four  times  the 
cost  of  the  high-school  pupil,  but  the  trade-school  graduate  can  command 
practically  four  times  the  wages  of  the  nonvocationally  trained  high-school 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  179 

graduate,  and  possesses  equal  possibilities  for  advancement  with  his  high- 
school  brother  graduates. 

The  original  law  which  made  possible  the  establishment  of  municipal 
trade  schools  in  Wisconsin,  and  which  contained  a  section  limiting  the  age 
of  entrance  to  sixteen  years,  has  been  changed  so  that  boys  and  girls  may 
enter  at  fourteen.  The  Board  of  School  Directors  has  taken  advantage  of 
the  change  in  the  law  and  applied  it  to  the  girls'  trade  school  only.  In  the 
construction  of  the  new  murticipal  school  of  trades  for  boys,  plans  of  which 
are  at  present  in  process  of  preparation,  the  outlook  for  a  preparatory  de- 
partment which  will  care  for  boys  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen, 
and  who  meet  certain  requirements,  is  very  bright.  This  will  aid  materially 
in  solving  the  most  complex  part  of  industrial  education.  There  is  at  present 
a  trade-school  preparatory  course  added  to  the  regular  high-school  courses, 
which  permits  the  eighth-grade  graduate  to  follow  a  good  preparatory  course 
until  he  is  sixteen ;  but  there  are  many  boys  who  cannot  reach  or  who  do 
not  wish  to  attend  the  high  school,  who  will  do  excellent  work  in  the  trade- 
school  preparatory  department.  This  department  should  not  be  narrow, 
but  should  treat  some  of  the  upper-grade  subjects,  with  which  the  boy  has 
frequently  found  difficulty,  from  a  new  and  more  vital  point  of  view. 

Viewed  broadly,  the  problem  confronting  those  responsible  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  a  girls'  trade  school  is  more  complex  than  the  one  to  be 
solved  in  connection  with  a  similar  school  for  boys.  The  future  for  the 
boy  graduate  is  in  a  measure  fixed ;  that  is,  he  will  remain  at  his  trade 
and  work  upwards  into  positions  of  higher  and  higher  responsibility,  de- 
pending upon  his  ability  and  energy.  He  will  always  be  in  the  ranks  of 
earners.  Not  so  with  the  girl  graduates.  More  than  half  of  them  will 
have  left  their  trade  in  a  few  years  and  become  housekeepers  in  their 
own  homes.  They  will  be  occupied  many  more  years  in  the  latter  duties 
than  at  the  trade  they  have  learned.  Realizing  this  fact,  the  Board  of 
School  Directors  has  wisely  and  with  farsightedness  arranged  a  course  of 
study  which  will  prepare  Milwaukee  girls  to  earn  an  efficient  wage  in  a 
minimum  time,  and  at  the  same  time  equip  them  for  the  household  duties 
of  the  home-keeper. 

The  age  of  admission  is  two  years  younger  than  that  of  the  boys'  trade 
school,  thus  permitting  them  to  enter  the  ranks  of  skilled  earners  at  an  age 
somewhat  younger  than  the  graduates  of  the  boys'  school.  This  is  per- 
missible on  account  of  the  less  amount  of.  personal  risk  in  the  trades  which 
girls  may  learn,  as  compared  to  the  dangers  inherent  in  many  trades 
popular  with  boys;  and  also  on  account  of  the  laws  which  forbid  boys  under 
sixteen  years  of  age  working  on  dangerous  machinery. 

The  total  number  of  hours  per  week  required  of  the  girls  is  thirty-five, 


I  So       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

or  nine  hours  less  than  demanded  from  the  boys.  Instruction  is  given  from 
8.30  A.M.  to  12  M.,  and  from  i  to  4.30  p.m.,  with  no  Saturday  morning  ses- 
sion.   The  trades  taught  are  dressmaking  and  millinery. 

The  dressmaking  trade  is  divided  into  six  separate  steps,  as  follows : 

Elementary  sewing  department. 

Underwear  department. 

Children's  department. 

Shirtwaist  and  cotton-dress  department.       * 

Dressmaking  department. 

Custom-work  department. 

The  millinery  department  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  elementary  and 
the  advanced. 

Supplementing  the  trade  instruction  is  the  following  list  of  work  required 
of  all  pupils : 

Drawing. 

Trade  and  workshop  mathematics. 

English,  business  correspondence. 

Household  science,  including  a  thorough  course  in  cooking. 

Physical  culture. 

Shop-inspection  trips. 

Approximately  two  fifths  of  the  student's  time  during  her  course  is  de- 
voted to  work  supplemental  to  her  chosen  trade. 

Several  features  are  common  to  the  administration  of  both  schools.  For 
instance,  a  special  feature  of  all  the  classroom  work  consists  in  adapting  it 
as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  special  requirements  of  the  various  trades.  A 
different  class  of  instruction  is  given  in  mechanical  drawing  and  workshop 
mathematics  for  each  trade. 

A  good  working  knowledge  of  elementary  mathematics  is  highly  essen- 
tial to  the  successful  artisan,  foreman,  and  forewoman,  and  a  good  course 
in  this  subject  is  given.  While  it  is  conceded  that  many  other  branches 
would  prove  of  value  to  the  students,  it  has  not  been  deemed  advisable  to 
introduce  them  into  the  actual  work  of  the  schools ;  but  the  students  are 
urged  to  supplement  their  practical  work  by  as  much  outside  reading  and 
study  as  possible.  They  are  urged  to  subscribe  for  some  good  trade  journal 
along  the  lines  of  their  chosen  trade,  and  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  latest 
and  best  methods  of  trade  practice.  It  is  also  urged  upon  them  tcf  start  a 
library  of  their  own.  The  world  has  excellent  facilities  of  self-culture  for 
the  ambitious  and  industrious  youth.  Wisconsin  offers  the  opportunities  of 
university  extension  work.  The  advantages  to  be  obtained  by  continuation 
work  in  the  city  night  schools  of  both  grammar  and  high-school  grade  are 
carefully  impressed  upon  the  graduate  of  these  schools. 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  l8l 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  school  that  its  graduates  shall  be  merely 
skilled  artisans ;  it  is  intended  that  they  shall  be  not  only  trained  and  effi- 
cient but  intelligent  workmen,  desirous  of  making  the  most  out  of  themselves 
in  their  chosen  vocations  from  every  point  of  view. 

Each  student  receives  personal  attention  and  instruction,  and  no  student 
is  held  back  on  account  of  the  slowness  of  other  pupils.  Careful  attention 
is  paid  to  the  formation  of  neat  habits  of  work  in  each  student,  and  only 
the  best  methods  of  procedure  are  taught.  All  work  is  done  from  drawings, 
and  no  problem  either  in  classroom  or  shop,  that  does  not  have  a  practical 
application,  is  given  to  a  pupil.  Theory  and  practice  are  closely  related  all 
through  each  apprenticeship.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  school  to  surround 
the  students  by  the  best  possible  environment  and  atmosphere.  Habits  of 
punctuality  are  encouraged,  and  the  value  of  the  possession  of  a  good  trade 
is  impressed  upon  the  students. 

It  is  also  the  aim  of  the  school  to  secure  instructors  who  are  specialists 
in  their  line,  men  and  women  who  are  interested  in  the  work,  and  who  can 
impart  their  knowledge  and  experience  to  apprentices. 

The  class  of  work  given  to  the  students  is  carefully  planned  to  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  of  equal  educational  and  practical  value.  Thus  the  stu- 
dent's interest  is  aroused  and  held.  A  high  standard  of  workmanship  is 
demanded  from  every  student,  and  only  those  attaining  it  are  permitted  to 
graduate. 

The  night  classes  are  planned  principally  to  supplement  the  experience 
of  apprentices  and  workmen  who  are  employed  during  the  day  at  the  trade 
in  which  they  desire  advancement  under  night  instruction.  The  total  day 
instruction  of  the  two-year  courses  requires  forty-four  hundred  hours.  The 
total  night  instruction  of  one  term  of  thirty-one  weeks  at  eight  hours  per 
week  amounts  to  two  hundred  forty-eight  hours.  Thus  it  is  evident  that 
none  but  students  of  exceptional  ability  and  determination  could  expect  to 
serve  the  entire  school  apprenticeship  in  night  classes  only.  The  school 
does  not  advise  students  to  attempt  to  learn  a  trade  by  this  means. 

It  is  impressed  upon  students  all  through  their  course  that  success  and 
happiness  are  not  measured  by  money  alone,  but  by  the  knowledge  and 
experience  of  work  well  done. 

The  schools  do  not  claim  to  turn  out  experienced  workers  or  journeymen. 
The  aim  is  to  instruct  the  students  thoroughly,  in  as  short  a  time  as  possible, 
in  all  the  fundamental  principles  and  in  the  practice  of  the  trade  in  question, 
so  that  they  may,  upon  graduation,  possess  ability  and  confidence,  and  be  of 
immediate  and  practical  value  to  their  employers  and  receive  a  fair  remu- 
neration at  once.  Speed  and  efficiency  as  commercial  employees  should 
soon  follow. 


1 82       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

The  David  Ranken,  Jr.,  School  of  Mechanical  Trades,* 
St.  Louis,  Missouri 

Another  school,  somewhat  different  in  type  but  professing 
reliance  on  the  efficacy  of  specialized  and  intensive  trade  train- 
ing, is  the  Ranken  School  of  St.  Louis.  This  school  offers  courses 
in  carpentry,  pattern  making,  bricklaying,  plumbing,  painting, 
and  steam  engineering  to  boys  of  fifteen  years  of  age  or  over,  who 
have  completed  the  work  of  the  sixth  grade,  or  who  have  an 
equivalent  education.  The  school  is  in  session  seven  hours  a 
day  (three  and  one-half  hours  on  Saturdays),  for  ten  and  one-half 
months  of  the  year.  The  classes  are  taught  by  men  who  have  a 
thorough  and  practical  knowledge  of  their  respective  trades.  The 
work  is  confined  exclusively  to  the  specific  trade  and  to  the  draw- 
ing, mathematics,  and,  in  the  second  year,  the  science  of  that  trade. 
During  the  first  year  the  weekly  program  provides  for  twenty- 
eight  and  one-half  hours  shopwork,  six  hours  drawing,  and  four 
hours  mathematics.   The  school  is  therefore  a  typical  trade  school. 

The  David  Ranken,  Jr.,  School  of  Mechanical  Trades  was 
made  possible  by  the  generosity  of  the  donor,  whose  name  it 
bears,  its  liberal  endowment  making  it  essentially  a  free  school ; 
for  while  the  tuition  amounts  to  $30  a  year,  the  actual  per  capita 
running  expenses  average  six  times  that  amount.  The  founda- 
tion deed  of  the  institution  bears  the  date  of  November  29,  1907, 
and  the  school  opened  its  doors  to  pupils  for  the  first  time  on 
September  7,  1909,  with  twenty  students  in  attendance. 

The  purpose  of  the  school  is  clearly  shown  by  the  following 

quotations,  the  first  from  the  foundation  deed,  and  the  second 

from  the  191 1  report  of  Superintendent  Lewis  Gustafson. 

Whereas  for  many  years  I  have  been  impressed  with  the  fact  that  too 
little  attention  is  given  to  the  instruction  of  boys  in  the  mechanical  trades, 
and  that  the  public  schools  and  other  free  educational  institutions  have  a 

^  From  an  article  prepared  by  the  author  for  Vocational  Education, 
January,  1912. 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  183 

tendency  to  create  in  the  minds  of  the  young,  as  well  as  in  the  community, 
a  prejudice  against  manual  labor,  and  the  idea  that  common  work  is  not 
respectable,  so  that  a  false  impression  and  a  false  pride  often  influence 
boys  and  young  men  to  avoid  the  mechanical  trades  in  which  they  might 
have  succeeded,  in  order  to  follow  pursuits  for  which  they  are  unfitted  and 
branches  of  business  which  are  overcrowded  and  in  which  they  probably 
would  not  succeed,  I  am  satisfied  that  there  is  need  of  an  institution  the 
object  of  which  shall  be  education  and  instruction  in  the  ordinary  mechani- 
cal trades  and  in  which  boys,  especially,  may  be  taught  the  dignity  of  labor. 
The  aim  of  the  Ranken  School  may  be  summarized  as  the  training  of 
efficient  mechanics  who  shall  take  a  pride  in  the  proper  performance  of  their 
work,  and  who  shall  have  such  knowledge  and  such  skill  as  will  enable  them 
to  meet  intelligently  whatever  demands  that  work  shall  lay  upon  them. 
While  it  is  not  the  aim  primarily  to  train  foremen  and  superintendents,  it 
is  the  expectation  that  within  a  few  years  after  graduation  many  of  the  stu- 
dents, by  virtue  of  the  training  they  have  received,  will  be  enabled  to  rise 
to  positions  of  responsibility,  or  go  into  business  for  themselves. 

It  should  be  observed  that  while  the  school  is  undoubtedly 
ambitious  for  its  future  graduates,  it  plans  to  fit  them  for  the 
higher  positions,  if  at  all,  only  by  enabling  them  to  rise  from  the 
ranks  through  successful  work.  On  the  other  hand,  it  teaches 
no  trade  which  is  not  open  at  the  top ;  which  does  not,  in  other 
words,  consist  of  work  which  is  in  itself  educative  because  it 
combines  thinking  with  action.  As  fairly  illustrative  of  all  the 
courses  we  may  examine  in  detail  the  work  offered  in  carpentry, 
as  outlined  in  the  catalogue. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  CARPENTRY 
The  instruction  offered  in  this  department  aims  to  cover  thoroughly  the 
work  of  the  carpenter  and  joiner,  with  particular  emphasis  on  housebuilding. 
Students  work  from  drawings  and  blue  prints  throughout. 

Shopwork 
First  Year 

First  term.  Names  and  uses  of  tools,  with  instructions  as  to  their 
handling  and  care ;  exercises  in  joinery. 

Second  term.  Joist  framing  and  setting;  bracing;  spacing;  practical 
use  of  joinery  exercises  in  framing  sills,  plates,  girders,  and  ties,  and  fitting 


1 84       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

in  braces ;  use  of  nails,  bolts,  stirrups,  and  camber  rods ;  machine  planing, 
sawing,  and  working  moldings ;  tool  grinding  ;  setting  up  machines. 

Third  term.  Making  window  frames,  sash,  doors,  blinds,  and  various 
kinds  of  moldings ;  paneling ;  millwork  in  general. 

Second  Year 

First  tertn.  Roof  framing ;  cornice  setting ;  shingling  ;  making  and  set- 
ting centers,  columns,  and  supports;  interior  finish,  such  as  jamb  casing, 
baseboarding,  fitting  and  hanging  doors  and  transoms,  and  setting  ceiling 
beams ;  putting  on  hardware. 

Second  term.   Cabinetwork ;  building  stairs,  handrail,  ramps,  and  easings. 

Third  term.  Erecting  complete  buildings  and  full-sized  sections  of 
buildings  in  the  school  shop. 

Lectures.  During  the  course  informal  shop  lectures  are  given  on  such  sub- 
jects as  the  following :  the  proper  care  of  edged  tools ;  the  various  woods  used 
in  building,  and  their  proper  selection  and  treatment ;  the  measurement  of 
lumber ;  glues,  nails,  screws,  bolts,  nuts,  pins,  straps,  and  other  fastenings ; 
framing,  shoring,  and  underpinning ;  roofs,  trusses,  spans,  and  beams ;  stair 
building;  woodworking  machinery;  paints,  shellacs,  and  varnishes;  fire- 
prevention  devices ;  the  steel  square ;  building  ordinances  of  St.  Louis. 

Third  Year 

An  additional  year  of  instruction  in  roof  framing,  roof  trussing,  stair 
building,  and  cabinetwork  is  offered  for  those  who  have  completed  the  work 
of  the  two-year  course,  or  its  equivalent.  Students  in  this  third  year  will 
be  permitted  to  specialize  at  the  discretion  of  the  instructor. 

Supplementary  Instruction — Applied  Mathematics 
First  Year 

First  term.  Arithmetic.  Fractions,  decimals,  squares  and  square  root, 
cubes  and  cube  root,  areas,  volumes. 

Second  term.  Klementary  geometry.  Chiefly  the  measurement  of  angles, 
chords,  and  arcs ;  areas  of  triangles,  rectangles,  circles,  and  irregular  figures ; 
cubic  contents  of  tanks,  bins,  cylinders,  cones,  and  other  bodies ;  percentage, 
proportion,  discount ;  English  and  metric  systems  of  weights  and  measures. 

Third  tertn.  Formula'.  Simple  fundamental  processes  involving  one  or 
two  unknown  quantities,  in  so  far  as  these  are  necessary  in  the  handling 
of  formulae  commonly  found  in  handbooks  and  books  of  reference  for 
trade  workers,  or  in  the  solution  of  useful  geometrical  problems  ;  practice  in 
working  problems  by  formulae. 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  1 85 

.   Second  Year 

First  term.  Mechanics.  Problems  involving  the  laws  of  the  lever, 
wheel  and  axle,  inclined  plane,  screw,  wedge,  etc. ;  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  solids,  liquids,  and  gases ;  water  pressures,  flow  of  water  through 
pipes ;  horsepower  of  pumps  and  engines,  friction,  etc.  (In  connection  with 
work  in  applied  science.) 

Second  term.  Elements  of  plane  trigonometry.  Simple  problems  in- 
volving the  measurement  of  angles,  slopes,  oblique  forces,  wind  pressures, 
resultant  of  forces,  inaccessible  heights  and  distances,  etc.  Problems  arising 
in  the  use  of  tape,  transit,  and  level. 

Third  term.  Devoted  to  the  solution  of  problems  arising  in  science 
building  construction,  etc. 

Special  emphasis  on  measurement  of  lumber,  area,  and  cubic  contents ; 
and  on  geometrical  problems  involved  in  roof  framing,  stair  building,  and 
the  use  of  the  steel  square ;  estimates. 

Drafting  i 

First  Year 

First  tertn.  General  use  of  drawing  instruments ;  free-hand  lettering 
and  sketching ;  geometrical  problems  relating  to  the  trade ;  joinery  exercises. 

Second  term.  Details  of  fences,  sheds,  and  stables;  joist  framing; 
studding ;  girders  and  trusses. 

Third  ienj!.  Scale  and  full-size  details  of  window  frames  and  sash ; 
door  frames  and  doors;  details  of  stairs  and'interior  finish. 

Second  Year 

First  term.  Plan  reading  and  preparation  of  working  drawings ;  city 
building  ordinances. 

Second  term.  Working  drawings  consisting  of  ^"  scale  plans,  elevations, 
and  sections  of  houses  and  cottages,  with  ^"  details. 

Thi7d  term.  Tracing  and  blueprinting ;  specifications ;  taking  off 
quantities. 

Applied  Science^ 

First  term.  Applied  physics.  Properties  of  materials  used  in  the 
trades ;  force  in  its  various  forms ;  levers,  booms,  derricks,  and  hoists ; 
study  of  ropes,  timbers,  boilers,  pipes,  and  joints  when  under  stress ;  hold- 
ing power  of  nails,  screws,  glued  joints,  cement,  and  mortar ;  bearing  power 

^  Given  in  second  year  only. 


1 86       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

of  soils ;  wind  pressure  and  snow  loads ;  water  circulation ;  expansion  of 
pipes,  etc.,  due  to  heat. 

Second  term.  Applied  chemistry.  Chemical  elements  and  their  gen- 
eral properties ;  water  impurities ;  oxidation,  rust,  corrosion ;  heat ;  com- 
bustion ;  study  of  gas  and  steam  ;  acids  and  their  action  ;  study  of  materials, 
such  as  oils,  cements,  mortars,  wood,  brick,  and  tile,  and  the  various  metals 
used  in  the  trades ;  deterioration  of  materials  from  the  action  of  gas,  heat, 
moisture,  and  frost. 

Third  term.  Continuation  of  first  and  second  terms.  Practical  methods 
in  building  measurements ;  practice  with  the  builder's  tape,  transit,  and 
level ;  mathematical  problems  based  on  these  measurements ;  building  con- 
struction and  city  ordinances. 

Brief  statements  of  the  other  courses  follow  : 

Pattern  making.  Pattern  making  covers  architectural  and 
machine  pattern  work,  and  includes  the  making  of  patterns 
for  pipes,  columns,  panels,  stair  work,  pulleys,  flywheels,  steam 
cylinders,  engine  frames  and  beds,  and  spur,  bevel,  and  worm 
gears. 

Bricklaying.  Through  a  graded  series  of  examples  practice 
and  instruction  are  given  in  such  types  of  bricklaying  as  the 
workman  is  sure  to  need  in  the  erection  of  buildings. 

Plnmbing.  The  course  in  plumbing  is  planned  to  meet  com- 
pletely the  needs  of  the  practical  plumber. 

Painting.  Instruction  in  painting  includes  house,  sign,  and 
fresco  painting,  and  aims  to  give  ability  to  plan  appropriate 
schemes  of  interior  and  exterior  decoration,  and  to  furnish  the 
necessary  technique  of  the  practical  workman. 

Steam  engineering.  The  course  in  steam  engineering  aims  to 
give  a  complete  practical  and  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  duties 
of  the  stationary  engineer.  It  involves  the  daily  operation  of 
the  school  power  plant,  and  the  visits  to  other  power  plants  and 
to  factories. 

A  study  is  made  of  fuels,  the  chemistry  of  combustion,  and 
the  construction  of  boilers.  Consideration  of  pumps,  steam  en- 
gines, steam  turbines,  gas  engines,  valve  setting,  gauge  reading 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  187 

and  testing,  motors  and  electric  lighting,  is  included  in  this 
course.    Elementary  machine-shop  work  is  also  given. 

The  courses  are  planned  to  cover  a  period  of  two  years,  with 
the  possibility  of  special  advanced  work  on  their  completion. 
Progress  through  the  courses,  however,  varies  with  the  individual. 

During  the  second  year,  instruction  is  given  in  applied  science 
in  all  courses,  and  informal  shop  lectures  are  given  for  the  pur- 
pose of  broadening  the  outlook  of  the  pupils. 

Equipment.  The  physical  equipment  of  the  school  is  adequate 
to  the  subjects  now  taught,  and  most  of  the  work  done  is  of  a 
thoroughly  practical  nature.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be 
stated  that  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  school  is  to  give  what 
may  be  called  intensive  training  in  the  technique  of  the  trade, 
eliminating  almost  entirely  the  commercial  product,  interest  in 
which,  it  is  thought,  might  possibly  divert  attention  from  the 
legitimate  business  of  the  school.  Thus,  while  men  are  taught, 
in  the  carpentry  class,  every  phase  of  frame-house  construction, 
the  building  erected  by  the  pupils  is,  nevertheless,  an  incom- 
plete, temporary  structure,  being  torn  down  at  the  end  of  the 
year.  It  is  claimed  that  the  work  of  wrecking  the  building  con- . 
tributes  to  the  education  of  the  pupils,  as  they  are  taught  to 
demolish  the  work  with  the  least  expenditure  of  time  and  the 
maximum  saving  of  material,  and  because  carpenters  are  con- 
stantly required  to  do  this  kind  of  work. 

It  may  be  said,  parenthetically,  that  in  this  particular  the 
school  shows  a  marked  variation  from  the  type.  The  superin- 
tendent, however,  maintains  that  the  school  occupies  a  middle 
ground  ;  it  proposes  neither  to  duplicate  the  general  educational 
work  of  the  high  school  on  the  one  hand,  nor  to  become  an 
industrial  plant  on  the  other.  It  is  a  trade  school,  but  it  aims  to 
make  trade  instruction  contribute  to  the  mental,  moral,  and  so- 
cial well-being  of  the  boy,  by  utilizing  every  available  hour  in 
the  doing  of  new  work  requiring  close  application  and  constant 


1 88       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

intellectual  reaction.  The  school  believes  in  the  dignity  of  work, 
the  educative  value  of  combined  thinking  and  doing,  and  the 
cultural  value  of  efficiency,  whether  manual  or  mental.  It  is  safe 
to  predict  that  it  will  not  be  deflected  from  its  avowed  purpose, 
either  by  the  glamour  of  traditional  educational  ideas  regarding 
the  superiority  of  pure  science,  pure  mathematics,  and  pure 
design,  or  by  the  attractions  of  the  commercial-product  system. 

Enrollment.  The  membership  of  the  school  is  not  at  present 
large,  but  it  is  constantly  increasing.  The  writer  called  at  the 
school  on  the  opening  day  in  September  and  found  82  students  in 
attendance,  about  evenly  divided  between  former  pupils  and  those 
enrolling  for  the  first  time.  The  attendance  on  the  fourth  day  of 
the  term  was  96,  an  increase  of  2 1  over  the  figures  for  the  corre- 
sponding day  last  year.  By  the  beginning  of  the  second  month 
the  enrollment  of  regular  day  pupils  had  reached  122.  This  en- 
rollment, which,  by  the  way,  includes  25  from  outside  of  the 
city  and  5  from  other  states,  will  undoubtedly  increase  materially. 

The  members  of  the  day  classes  appeared  to  be  younger  than 
one  expects  to  find  in  a  trade  school.  Boys  are  admitted  at  fif- 
teen, and  the  average  age  seemed  not  far  beyond  this  mark.  The 
graduating  class  of  191 1  numbered  18,  and  the  ages  of  these 
boys  on  entrance,  the  distribution  among  the  several  trades,  and 
their  previous  schooling  are  shown  by  the  following  table  : 


Age  at  Entrance — Graduating  Class  of  July,  191  i 


Carpen- 
try 

Plumb- 
ing 

Steam 
Engi- 
neering 

Paint- 
ing 

Totals 

Schooling 

Ages 

Elementary  Grade 

Year  in 
High  School 

6th 

7th 

8th 

I  St 

2d 

15-16 
16-17 
17-18 
18-19 

3 
I 
I 

I 

I 
I 

4 
2 

2 
I 

I 

6 

3 
6 

3 

I 
I 

I 
I 

2 

2 
I 

2 
2 

2 

2 

I 

THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  189 

In  addition  to  the  day  classes  there  is  a  large  evening  school, 
in  session  four  evenings  a  week  from  October  to  March  inclu- 
sive, designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  mechanics,  either  journey- 
men or  apprentices,  already  at  work  in  the  trades. 

There  is  also  a  cooperative  course  for  apprentices  in  the  ma- 
chinist's trade,  fifty  of  whom  receive  instruction  in  drawing  and 
mathematics  two  mornings  a  week.  The  tuition  is  $5  a  term,  or 
$  1 5  a  year,  and  is  paid  by  the  employer,  who  also  permits  the 
apprentice  to  attend  without  loss  of  wages.  All  arrangements 
are  made  in  accordance  with  an  agreement  between  the  school 
and  the  St.  Louis  branch  of  the  National  Metal  Trades  Asso- 
ciation. 

The  enrollment  in  all  classes  for  the  school  year  1910-1911 
was  159  regular  day  pupils,  58  metal-trades  apprentices,  248 
night-school  pupils;  total,  465. 

Outlook  for  the  future .  A  school  which  has  been  in  existence 
but  two  years  should  be  judged  not  so  much  by  its  present  ac- 
complishment, however  noteworthy  it  may  be,  as  by  its  hopes 
and  plans  for  the  future.  The  school  as  it  stands  at  present  is 
apparently  but  the  beginning  of  a  highly  diversified  institution. 
The  beautiful  and  commodious  building  which  it  now  occupies 
is  but  one  of  a  group  of  buildings  now  quite  definitely  planned, 
and  the  additions  already  contemplated  will  cost  in  the  vicinity 
of  $250,000.  New  subjects  will  be  added  as  soon  as  demanded 
by  the  constituency  of  the  school,  and  it  is  expected  that  plans 
will  be  made  for  reaching  the  boy  of  fourteen,  and  for  enriching 
the  more  elementary  trade  courses,  to  be  provided  for  him,  with 
some  general  educational  work. 

The  location  is  thought  to  be  ideal.  Recently  several  industrial 
plants  have  been  built  in  the  vicinity,  replacing  former  dwelling 
houses.  It  is  expected  that  in  the  near  future  the  school  will 
be  the  center  of  a  district  which  is  both  industrial  and  residential, 
containing  the  homes  and  the  workshops  of  a  population  which 


I90       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

the  school  can  effectively  serve  not  only  vocationally  but  socially 
as  well.  It  is  toward  the  ultimate  fulfillment  of  this  larger  pur- 
pose that  the  school  is  being  steadfastly  developed. 


The  Worcester  Trade  School,  Worcester, 
Massachusetts 

This  school  is  chosen  for  description  because  it  differs  from 
those  already  noted  in  the  emphasis  which  it  places  on  the 
"  product  system "  as  being  fundamental  to  its  methods  of 
instruction. 

The  school  was  opened  in  1 9 1 1  with  the  avowed  purpose  of 
training  thoroughly  skilled  and  competent  workmen.  Established 
under  the  laws  of  Massachusetts,  it  is  supported  jointly  by  the 
state  and  the  city  of  Worcester,  and  is  controlled  by  a  Board  of 
Trustees,  elected  by  the  City  Council  and  acting  as  agents  for 
the  state. 

Occupying  a  building  especially  erected  and  equipped  for  the 
purpose  of  providing  adequate  training  for  machinists,  pattern 
makers,  carpenters,  and  cabinetmakers,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
effective  trade  institutions  in  the  country.  Specializing  in  but 
few  trades,  it  applies  itself  with  great  thoroughness  to  the  ac- 
complishment of  its  purpose. 

The  school  is  in  session  from  8  a.m.  to  5  p.m.  on  five  days  a 
week,  and  practically  for  the  entire  year,  or,  to  be  exact,  for 
four  terms  of  twelve  weeks  each. 

Fully  one  half  the  time  is  spent  in  productive  shop  work ; 
that  is  to  say,  in  manufacturing  a  product  which  has  a  definite 
commercial  value. 

The  remaining  time  is  devoted  to  training,  but  not  to  instruc- 
tion in  book  work  alone,  for  considerable  attention  is  given  to 
the  study  of  shop  processes  and  in  gaining  additional  information 
about  and  special  practice  in  the  technique  of  the  trade. 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  191 

Skill,  speed,  and  appreciation  of  industrial  demands,  which 
are  the  requisites  of  the  skilled  workman,  are  gained  by  doing 
the  commercial  work. 

In  an  article  in  the  November  Vocational  Education,  en- 
titled "  The  Commercial  School  Shop,"  Principal  Elmer  H.  Fish 
discusses  fully  this  feature  of  the  Worcester  Trade  School,  and 
the  following  is  quoted  from  that  discussion. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  COMMERCIAL  WORK 

The  principal  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  discuss]  the  commercial-shop 
idea  as  it  applies  to  industrial  schools,  that  is,  to  the  practice  work  of  a  school. 

Briefly  the  arguments  for  the  commercial  work  are  these :  First,  interest ; 
pupils  are  more  easily  interested  in  something  of  use.  Second,  thoroughness ; 
it  is  much  easier  to  insist  on  accuracy  of  workmanship  when  the  product 
must  meet  commercial  conditions.  Third,  speed ;  speed  can  be  gotten  with- 
out crowding  when  a  comparison  can  be  made  with  commercial  practice. 
Fourth,  efficiency;  pupils  are  capable  of  doing  a  large  amount  of  work. 
Whatever  effort  they  put  forth  should  result  in  the  largest  possible  return 
to  society  for  its  investment  in  their  education  and  training. 

Opposed  to  these  considerations  are :  first,  the  danger  of  exploiting 
pupils  through  too  great  desire  for  a  good  financial  showing ;  second,  the 
danger  of  antagonizing  competing  manufacturers  by  the  invading  of  a  private 
market  by  a  public  corporation ;  third,  the  danger  of  antagonizing  labor 
in  the  same  way.    It  may  be  of  interest  to  discuss  each  of  these  arguments. 

Interest.  It  is  difficult  for  the  average  man  to  interest  himself  in  the 
abstract.  Shopwork  which  is  not  a  part  of  a  valuable  product  is  abstract. 
As  a  matter  of  experience  I  would  say  that  the  average  boy  of  sixteen  years 
of  age  will  get  four  times  the  training  from  chipping  a  slot  in  a  tool  post 
for  a  lathe  that  he  would  get  from  chipping  the  same  amount  of  steel  that 
is  merely  to  be  used  again  and  again  until  it  is  all  gone.  On  the  other  hand, 
abstract  exercises  have  their  disciplinary  value  ;  as,  for  example,  a  boy  who 
chips  carelessly  on  a  tool  post  can  be  brought  to  a  realization  of  his  sins  by 
being  relegated  to  a  block  of  steel  until  he  is  ready  to  be  careful. 

Thoroughness.  We  have  found  a  very  great  value  in  the  fact  that  work 
sold  is  inspected  by  outsiders  who  have  no  acquaintance  with  pupils  or  their 
troubles.  We  are  fortunately  all  human  and  humane.  After  we  have  seen 
a  boy  struggle  with  a  difficult  job,  watched  him  through  the  valley  of  despair, 
and  finally  seen  him  win  out,  it  is  hard  for  us  to  reject  his  work  for  a  trifling 


192        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

error  that  he  probably  would  correct  at  the  next  attempt.  Here  the  outside 
inspector  comes  to  our  aid  by  calmly  rejecting  the  work  for  the  very  simple 
reason  that  it  is  not  right.  The  disciplinary  value  of  this  inspection  and  its 
realism  are  two  of  the  most  potent  factors  in  the  imparting  of  experience 
to  pupils. 

It  is  not  wise  to  do  as  is  occasionally  done  —  sell  "  second-quality  goods  " 
at  second-quality  prices.  The  scrap  heap  may  be  large,  but  it  will  inevitably 
be  found  that  boys  can  and  will,  save  for  occasional  lapses,  turn  out  as  good 
work  as  is  distinctly  and  firmly  demanded. 

A  small  proportion  of  work  actually  sold  will  serve  to  set  a  standard  for 
a  considerable  quantity  used  in  the  school.  Of  course  no  school  ought  to 
buy  what  it  can  make,  provided  the  making  is  in  line  with  the  training  which 
it  is  desired  to  give.  An  excellent  expedient  during  the  period  of  the  equip- 
iment  of  a  school  is  to  make  machinery  in  larger  quantities  than  is  needed 
and  exchange  the  surplus  for  other  equipment.  The  work  offered  in  ex- 
change must  then  pass  the  inspection  of  the  market. 

Speed.  Modern  conditions  have  little  use  for  a  man,  no  matter  how 
skilled,  whose  production  falls  below  a  reasonable  speed.  In  fact  it  is  easy 
to  show  that  a  shop  having  a  considerable  overhead  charge  to  meet  might 
easily  become  bankrupt  through  the  employment  of  slow  workers,  even 
though  they  were  paid  no  wages  at  all. 

Such  being  the  case,  it  is  desirable  that  graduates  of  industrial  schools 
should  be,  if  not  rapid  workers,  at  least  trained  to  know  what  pace  they  must 
set  to  hold  a  position.  The  use  of  commercial  work  is  especially  valuable 
in  this  connection  because  it  affords  a  real  basis  of  comparison.  For  example, 
a  boy  was  turning  up  brass  bushings,  for  which  we  received  2  cents  each, 
averaging  an  hour  for  each  one.  After  being  shown  that  at  that  rate  he  was 
worth  2  cents  an  hour  minus  the  overhead  charges  of  the  plant  (about  1 5 
cents  per  hour) ,  or  about  1 3  cents  less  than  nothing,  he  began  to  see  ways 
in  which  he  could  increase  his  production.  Of  course  it  would  be  possible 
to  estimate  time  on  exercise  work,  but  estimates  do  not  have  the  same  effect 
on  students  that  the  actual  facts  do,  nor  are  they  so  likely  to  be  correct. 

Crowding  pupils  to  get  speed  is  dangerous  on  account  of  the  possibility 
of  exploitation.  Speed  should  be  attained  solely  for  the  good  of  the  pupil, 
not  for  the  sake  of  getting  work  out  of  the  shop  at  a  given  date,  except  in 
cases.  This  is  a  most  difficult  thing  to  show  to  the  manufacturers  from 
whom  work  is  obtained.  However,  it  will  not  do  to  take  outside  work  on 
close  delivery  dates.    It  is  better  to  have  none  at  all. 

Efficiency.  So  far  as  the  pupil  is  concerned,  efficiency  has  been  covered 
in  the  previous  paragraphs.  As  affecting  the  community,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  taxpayers  are  entitled  to  the   most   economical   administration 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  1 93 

possible,  consistent  with  the  best  training.  In  this  case  the  two  things  are 
entirely  consistent,  inasmuch  as  the  best  training  for  other  reasons  involves  a 
usable  product,  which  in  turn  helps  to  reduce  the  cost  of  running  the  school. 
Then,  too,  waste  of  time  and  energy  is  always  regrettable.  To  put  boys  or 
girls  to  work,  performing  what  might  be  useful  operations,  on  useless  prod- 
uct seems  so  far  from  the  reasonable,  normal  thing  to  do,  that  no  one 
would  consider  it  except  for  the  imaginary  obstacles  of  the  opposition  of 
labor  and  capital,  which  will  be  discussed  later. 


DANGERS  IN  COMMERCIAL  WORK 

Exploitation.  As  stated  above,  there  is  a  wonderful  amount  of  potential 
energy  in  a  fourteen-  or  fifteen-year-old  boy.  Under  proper  direction  this 
can  be  turned  into  a  large  amount  of  valuable  work.  The  conditions  which 
bring  forth  the  largest  amount  of  work  are  not  the  best  for  the  training 
of  the  pupil.  There  must  be  a  balancing  of  one  against  the  other,  so  that 
the  maximum  of  efficiency  in  the  education  and  training  of  the  boy  shall 
be  attained  with  the  greatest  possible  efficiency  in  production. 

A  school  in  the  formative  stage,  as  most  schools  are  to-day,  will  find  this 
difficult,  because  it  will  be  necessary  to  do  many  jobs  by  inefficient  methods, 
since  beginners  should  be  taught  to  do  work  by  purely  shop  methods  in 
distinction  from  factory  methods.  For  example,  a  boy  may  very  well  be 
taught  to  drill  to  a  scribed  circle  when  modern  methods  would  dictate  that 
he  should  do  the  work  with  a  jig.  The  latter  method  of  drilling  might  be 
desirable  after  the  school  had  acquired  a  class  of  boys  in  their  third  or 
fourth  year  able  to  make  their  own  jigs. 

The  danger  of  exploitation  may  readily  come  about  through  politics.  The 
expense  of  conducting  industrial  schools  appears  to  be  necessarily  greater 
than  that  to  which  the  public  is  accustomed  in  other  secondary  schools.  In 
order  to  get  the  political  body  which  governs  the  finances  of  a  city  to  estab- 
lish a  school,  it  is  very  easy  to  claim  that  the  productive  element  may  be 
pushed  so  that  the  cost  may  be  as  low  as  that  of  other  secondary  schools.  It 
would  also  be  possible  to  claim,  and  the  claim  could  be  made  good,  that, 
with  a  picked  group  of  boys  and  a  school  with  several  hundred  pupils  and 
teaching  a  selected  group  of  trades,  the  schools  could  be  made  self-sup- 
porting. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  a  school  which  is  self-supporting  is  something 
besides  an  educational  institution.  Such  an  institution,  which  could  also  pay 
its  pupils  wages,  might  be  the  best  possible  solution  of  the  problem  ;  but  so 
long  as  it  cannot  pay  wages  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  largest  ex- 
pense to  the  community  lies  in  the  loss  of  wages  which  the  pupils  might 


194       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

otherwise  earn.  This  is  offset  later  by  the  increased  earning  capacity  of  the 
pupils,  but  the  loss  is  a  present  one  and  falls  on  the  parents,  who  are 
usually  ill  prepared  to  meet  it. 

The  average  boy  could  easily  earn  a  thousand  dollars  during  four  years. 
The  cost  to  the  community  of  a  four  years'  course  in  a  trade  school  ought 
not  to  be  over  #600.  The  resulting  gain  in  worth  of  the  boy's  time  per- 
fectly justifies  the  expenditure  of  the  $1600.  The  city  is  amply  able  to  in- 
vest its  ss6oo  and  wait  for  the  return ;  but  parents,  as  a  rule,  are  not  able 
to  invest  the  $1000,  certainly  not  the  parents  of  the  boys  who  most  need 
this  training. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  the  plain  duty  of  the  school  to  see  to  it 
that  the  least  possible  amount  of  the  pupil's  time  is  wasted  consistent  with 
his  health  and  the  right  of  his  parents  to  a  reasonable  amount  of  his  services. 

Labor.  This  brings  us  into  apparent  conflict  with  another  possible  ob- 
jection, the  labor  element.  This  has,  to  many  minds,  been  the  great  bug- 
bear of  the  whole  movement.  In  fact  it  has  been  so  feared  that  no  one  has 
apparently  taken  the  trouble  to  inquire  into  its  real  attitude.  By  labor  ele- 
ment I  mean  not  organized  labor  alone,  but  that  twenty  times  larger  body 
that  votes  on  civic  matters. 

We  have  found  in  Worcester  that  this  element  wants  two  things :  first, 
that  everything  that  we  do  shall  be  open  to  anybody's  view  at  any  time; 
second,  that  we  shall  really  teach  a  trade  and  do  it  thoroughly.  They  object 
to  our  turning  out  "  half-baked  "  mechanics  to  compete  for  employment 
with  men  who  know  their  trade.  In  this  I  believe  they  are  right.  At 
present  they  are  judging  the  efficiency  of  the  course  by  its  length,  which  is 
perhaps  the  only  way  in  which  they  can  judge  it  until  our  graduates  have 
been  out  a  few  years. 

The  t/iaiiufacfurer.  The  objection  that  competition  with  manufac- 
turers may  antagonize  them  is  also  an  imaginary  one.  We  have  had  more 
difficulty  in  keeping  local  manufacturers  informed  that  we  were  in  existence 
than  we  have  had  in  avoiding  competition  with  them.  The  amount  of  work 
required  in  any  community  to  keep  a  trade  school  supplied  is  not  likely  to 
be  more  than  a  single  day's  work  in  a  year  for  the  shops  in  the  same  trades. 
We  have  had  loyal  support  from  local  manufacturers  from  the  time  that  they 
became  convinced  that  we  could  and  would  turn  out  good  work. 

After  following  so  far,  the  reader  who  is  actually  engaged  in  solving  the 
difficulties  of  a  trade  school  will  ask,  What  commercial  work  can  we  get 
that  is  practical  and  practicable?  In  answer  to  this  question  I  can  only  tell 
what  we  have  done  and  what  we  are  aiming  to  do  in  Worcester.  The  suc- 
cess that  we  have  so  far  met  with  in  our  efforts  in  this  direction  is  sufficient 
to  convince  us  that  we  can  carry  out  our  plans  in  the  future. 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  1 95 

Our  work  so  far  is  confined  to  machine  work,  pattern  making,  cabinet- 
making,  and  carpentry ;  therefore  I  shall  confine  myself  to  these  trades.  In 
reviewing  the  work  I  wish  to  say  that  we  by  no  means  abhor  exercises  in 
their  place. 

THE  PLACE  OF  PRACTICE  EXERCISES 

Outside  the  scope  of  industrial  education  —  in  art,  in  music,  in  commerce, 
in  law,  medicine,  and  religion  —  it  has  already  been  found  that  a  close  approx- 
imation to  the  methods  followed  by  the  best  artists,  musicians,  accountants, 
lawyers,  etc.,  in  their  practice  is  the  best  way  to  follow  in  the  practice  of  the 
schools.  This  practice  is  of  course  accompanied  by  instruction,  but  that  is 
another  subject.  On  the  other  hand,  in  many  trades,  arts,  and  professions 
the  training  of  hand  or  eye  is  aided  by  practice  which  is  in  the  nature  of 
exercise,  and  which  may  not  have  commercial  value.  Years  ago  a  black- 
smith's apprentice  was  set  to  forging  horseshoe  nails,  not  because  they 
could  not  be  bought,  but  because  in  this  work  he  spoiled  less  stock  in 
acquiring  facility  with  fire  and  hammer  than  in  any  other  way.  He  practiced 
making  welds  on  worthless  scraps  of  iron  until  he  could  make  welds  with 
certainty.  The  same  is  true  of  most  trades.  The  necessity  of  practice  is 
evident,  but  the  loss  of  material  in  commercial  work  spoiled  is  equally 
evident.  When  hard-headed  business  men  resort  to  this  expedient,  we  c^n 
hardly  refuse  to  consider  it,  provided  we  consistently  use  it  as  a  means 
and  not  as  an  end. 

Conceding  a  limited  amount  of  practice  work  given  the  pupil,"  we  can  say 
to  him  that  he  shall  have  practical  work  as  soon  as  he  can  demonstrate  his 
ability  to  do  it  without  excessive  waste ;  then  it  becomes  necessary  to  pro- 
vide that  practical  work,  and  in  logical  sequence,  though  this  logical  sequence 
may  vary  with  every  boy  and  is  at  best  a  matter  of  judgment  with  the 
instructor  rather  than  something  that  may  be  laid  down  beforehand. 

Speaking  in  the  light  of  experience,  I  should  say  that  commercial  work  is 
very  readily  found  for  the  machine  shop,  with  more  difficulty  in  cabinet- 
making,  and  with  still  more  difficulty  in  pattern  making  and  carpentry. 
Taking  these  things  in  reverse  order,  we  begin  with : 

Carpentry.  By  this  we  mean  house  framing,  setting  of  door  and  window 
frames,  sheathing,  shingling,  etc.,  as  distinguished  from  inside  carpentry, 
house  finishing,  or  cabinetwork.  Our  work  along  this  line  resolves  itself 
into  the  building  of  frames  for  garages,  cottages,  etc.,  of  commercial  sizes 
and  of  commercial  stock,  which  when  completed  may  be  taken  down  and 
sold  for  a  trifle  more  than  the  price  of  the  stock ;  or,  if  no  purchaser  ap- 
pears, may  be  re-used  by  the  next  class  to  construct  a  building  of  somewhat 
smaller  size. 


196       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Only  enough  sheathing  is  done  to  enable  a  window  or  door  frame  to  be 
set,  inasmuch  as  that  work  is  unskilled  work  and  is  often  done  by  laborers. 
Shingling  and  clapboarding  under  these  conditions  must  necessarily  be  torn 
down  and  the  time  and  a  large  part  of  the  stock  wasted.  Shingling  is  never 
done  in  shops,  but  only  in  the  field.  Therefore  we  shall  have  to  send  our 
boys  into  the  field  to  give  them  commercial  work.  So  far  we  have  only  been 
able  to  see  a  possibility  of  this  through  half  time  or  other  form  of  cooper- 
ation with  local  employers. 

Pattern  making.  The  pattern-making  industry  is  peculiar  in  that  it  is 
exclusively  custom  work.  But  one  pattern  is  made  of  a  piece  except  in 
metal  pattern  making,  which  may  be  classed  for  purposes  of  instruction  as 
machine  work. 

Ostensibly  to  treat  all  students  alike,  and  as  a  matter  of  convenience  to 
the  instructor,  it  is  usual  for  schools  to  have  each  pupil  make  a  pattern  for 
every  job  that  is  brought  into  the  shop,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  follow 
this  idea  to  an  extent,  especially  at  the  start. 

Pattern  making  also  has  the  same  peculiarity  as  tool,  jig,  and  fixture 
making,  in  that  it  is  a  means  to  an  end  rather  than  an  end  in  itself.  A 
pattern  is  a  tool  which  a  molder  needs  in  order  to  produce  something  of 
value  —  a  casting.  It  has  no  intrinsic  value  and  cannot  be  sold  in  the  open 
market.  Therefore  no  one  can  make  patterns  for  sale  except  on  order. 
Taking  orders  for  patterns  is  difficult  because  few  people  will  order 
from  jobbing  shops  except  for  rush  work.  A  little  work  may  be  obtained 
from  friendly  shops  in  the  nature  of  replacements  of  worn-out  patterns,  but 
this  is  entirely  unclassified  and  must  be  taken,  if  taken  at  all,  as  it  is  offered. 
The  best  solution  of  the  problem  of  commercial  pattern  making  that  we 
know  of  is  to  run  it  in  connection  with  the  machine  shop  and  drafting  room. 
A  machine-shop  course,  as  will  be  seen  later,  is  a  very  flexible  thing. 

It  is  possible  for  a  shop  to  continue  year  after  year  bringing  out  new 
machines  or  new  designs  of  old  machines,  which  in  time  produces  work  of 
a  highly  desirable  nature  for  both  drawing  room  and  pattern  shop.  By 
having  a  large  amount  of  work  of  this  nature  under  way  in  the  drafting 
room  it  is  possible  to  pick  jobs  which  shall  follow  one  another  in  logical 
sequence,  and  with  as  small  steps  as  may  be  necessary  between  them  for 
the  individual  pupil. 

It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  nature  of  the  pattern-making 
trade  does  not  make  it  necessary  that  as  great  an  amount  of  practice  should 
be  given  as  in  most  other  trades.  The  actual  making  of  a  pattern  after  it 
has  been  designed  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter.  The  study  of  the 
design  of  patterns,  working  from  the  drawings  of  the  machine  for  which 
the  patterns  are  to  be  made,  is  the  largest  part  of  the  trade  and  the  part 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  1 97 

which  should  receive  the  most  attention.  The  method  here  outlined  is  logical 
and  in  line  with  shop  practice,  in  that  the  drawing  room  and  pattern  shop 
are  tributary  to  the  machine  shop. 

Cabinetmakittg.  This  trade  in  its  highest  form  is  also  custom  work,  and 
includes  furniture  and  interior  finish  for  houses,  stores,  offices,  etc.  How- 
ever, there  is  an  abundance  of  work  of  a  simple  nature  that  is  made  in  large 
quantities.  In  commercial  shops  this  work  is  done  on  special  machines  with 
an  astonishing  rapidity  which  cannot,  of  course,  be  duplicated  with  advan- 
tage by  our  pupils. 

This  work  can  be  drawn  largely  from  furniture  lines,  particularly  drawing- 
room  furniture,  for  bench  work ;  and  from  such  work  as  spool  and  bobbin 
manufacture,  handles,  banisters,  dumb-bells,  Indian  clubs,  etc.,  for  lathe 
work.  It  will  be  found  that  most  of  this  work  returns  only  the  cost  of  stock, 
inasmuch  as  it  competes  with  work  done  in  the  West,  where  lumber  is 
cheaper  than  here,  and  the  difference  in  freight  between  rough  stock  and 
the  finished  article  often  covers  the  cost  of  labor. 

We  have  done  as  yet  very  little  of  this  work  in  Worcester,  because  of 
the  press  of  work  for  our  own  equipment. 

We  have  contemplated  a  full  set  of  furniture,  well  made,  of  low-price 
wood,  and  of  artistic  design,  which  last  we  are  assured  of  by  the  hearty  cooper- 
ation of  the  Worcester  Art  Museum.  It  is  our  intention  to  put  this  line  on 
the  market  through  all  local  stores  that  are  willing  to  handle  it  at  a  uniform 
price  and  terms.  We  shall  probably  begin  with  the  mission  style  and  later 
develop  the  more  elaborate  types,  since  the  latter  are  required  to  give 
varied  practice. 

Machine  work.  This  is  essentially  repetitive  except  in  model  and  die 
making  and  in  the  manufacture  of  special  machinery.  The  methods  in  vogue 
for  production  in  large  lots  and  in  single  units  are  not  especially  different  in 
principle  though  they  may  vary  in  practice.  Machine  work  may  be  divided 
into  (i)  preparation  of  work  for  machining;  (2)  machining;  (3)  erecting. 

(i)  Preparation  of  the  work.  This  includes  deciding  upon  the  operations 
to  be  performed,  their  order,  the  best  machine  in  which  to  perform  them, 
the  laying  out  of  the  work,  the  setting  it  up  on  the  machine,  the  grinding 
and  setting  of  cutting  tool,  and  the  adjustment  of  speeds  and  feeds.  This 
work  varies  in  difficulty  from  the  simple  centering  of  short  round  stock  to 
the  setting  up  of  complicated  castings  on  planer  or  boring  machines.  In 
this  connection  we  are  trying,  in  Worcester,  to  adapt  the  best  of  scientific 
management  to  our  needs.  In  doing  this  we  are  having  the  older  boys  work 
up  standard  practice  sheets.  These  will  ultimately  cover  everything  that 
we  do  in  the  shops,  from  cutting  off  and  centering  the  stock  to  its  final 
assembling.   They  are  being  based,  in  the  first  instance,  on  the  judgment  of 


1 98        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

the  boy,  tempered  by  that  of  the  instructor,  and  later  revised  in  the  light 
of  experience. 

These  standard  practice  sheets  will  be  followed  only  until  better  ones 
are  produced.  They  represent  at  no  time  the  ultimate  goal,  but  at  all  times 
the  latest  experience  of  boys  and  instructors.  These  sheets  are  made  during 
what  we  call  shop-instruction  time,  which  occurs  in  the  recitation  week,  it 
being  our  endeavor  to  put  all  instruction  of  whatever  nature  in  that  week 
and  leave  the  shop  week  for  the  gaining  of  experience.  In  carrying  out  this 
latter  part  of  the  scheme  we  shall  use  the  standard  practice  sheets  as  a  guide 
to  the  students  and  a  help  to  the  instructors. 

(2)  Machining.  The  classification  of  the  chart  shows  many  varieties  of 
machine  operations,  practically  all  of  which  should  be  familiar  to  every  boy. 
About  half  of  these  operations  are  found  in  the  courses  of  manual-training 
and  technical  schools.  They  are  generally  looked  upon  by  the  school  men 
as  constituting  the  whole  trade,  instead  of  merely  being  one  half  of  a  small 
third  of  that  trade. 

The  process  of  finding  work  of  commercial  value,  either  for  sale  or  for 
equipment,  which  shall  cover  all  these  operations  is  really  simple.  As  we 
get  farther  on  in  our  work  we  are  less  and  less  inclined  to  think  that  it  is 
essential  that  we  avoid  competing  with  local  manufacturers.  In  fact  we 
find  that  they  are  quite  generally  willing  to  cooperate  with  us.  Among  the 
possibilities  of  manufacture  which  avoid  local  competition  we  have  found : 
sensitive  radial  drills ;  electrically  driven  drills,  grinders,  etc. ;  valves ;  special 
steam  and  water  fittings ;  flanges,  etc. ;  vises,  pattern  and  machinist's ;  lathe 
chucks,  universal  and  plain ;  drilling-machine  vises ;  hand  milling  machines ; 
profiling  machines. 

We  have  found  the  following  manufactures  entering  into  competition, 
but  unobjectionable  :  handles  for  machines ;  change  gears  for  lathes ;  tool 
posts  for  lathes ;  handwheels  ;  stock  sizes  of  cast-iron  pulleys ;  collar  screws ; 
collars  for  shafting ;  lathe  centers. 

Machine  tools  and  woodworking  machinery  for  equipment  of  schools 
enter  into  deliberate  competition. 

We  are  now  working  on  a  hand  milling  machine,  which  we  have  designed 
in  such  a  way  that  almost  every  one  of  these  classified  operations  is  possible 
in  the  course  of  its  manufacture,  although  to  get  all  these  it  will  be  neces- 
sary for  us  to  make  some  parts  by  two  different  methods,  one  of  which  will 
be  a  better  method  than  the  other.  This  we  do  not  consider  objectionable, 
inasmuch  as  we  feel  that  a  boy  who  has  been  allowed  to  do  work  solely  in 
the  "  best  way  "  would  inevitably  fall  into  some  of  the  worst  ways  of  doing 
work  when  thrown  on  his  own  resources  after  graduation,  much  to  his  and 
our  discredit.   By  this  I  mean  that  a  boy  who  has  always  been  guided  is  not 


THE  TRADE  SCHOOL  1 99 

thereby  taught  to  guide  himself —  that  unless  he  has  at  least  had  an  object 
lesson  in  the  poor  ways  of  doing  work,  he  will  try  them  when  he  is  placed  on 
his  own  responsibility. 

MANUFACTURING  PLANS 

We  have  no  intention  of  confining  our  efforts  to  the  manufacture  of  any 
one  machine,  but  intend  to  conduct  our  work  along  these  lines : 
9  weeks  per  year  lathe  work. 
3  weeks  per  year  planer  work. 
3  weeks  per  year  milling. 
3  weeks  per  year  vise  and  erecting. 
6  weeks  per  year  drilling,  grinding,  engine  room,  and 
cleaning  castings  (one  and  one-half  weeks  each). 

We  believe  that  each  boy  should  go  around  the  circuit  of  these  processes 
once  each  of  the  four  years,  so  for  these  years  we  must  provide  work  of 
suitable  difficulty.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the  character  of  the  work 
which  we  can  do  must  vary  as  time  goes  on,  until  we  have  run  the  school 
four  years ;  and  it  will  also  be  seen  that  the  amount  of  exercise  work  used 
in  training  may  be  expected  to  decrease  as  the  larger  variety  brings  with  it  a 
greater  amount  of  simple  work. 

We  have  so  far  followed  our  methods  through  the  first  eighteen  months 
of  a  four  years'  course.  While  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  they  will  work  out, 
we  can  say  that  75  per  cent  of  the  boys  who  entered  over  a  year  ago  are 
still  with  us,  as  against  55  per  cent  for  the  local  high  schools  and  63  per 
cent  for  the  country  at  large.  We  have  turned  out  in  the  vicinity  of  five 
thousand  dollars'  worth  of  commercial  work,  counting  equipment  of  salable 
quality  and  work  in  process. 

In  conclusion  let  me  say  that  our  idea  of  a  logical  course  in  machine 
work  covers : 

(a)  A  line  of  small  machinist's  tools,  involving  a  very  small  outlay  for 
material  and  consequent  small  risk  of  spoiled  work  and  difficulty  of  sale. 
This  work  is  especially  for  beginners. 

(3)  Jobbing  for  local  shops.  This  we  shall  have  to  confine  to  overflow 
work,  and  we  must  drop  it  in  dull  times.  There  are  two  large  values  in  this 
work  which  make  it  attractive :  (i)  The  fact  that  it  is  inspected  by  men  who 
are  acquainted  with  our  boys  and  have  no  interest  except  to  see  that  the 
work  is  right.  (2)  It  brings  local  manufacturers  into  close  touch  with  us  and 
our  work.  On  the  other  hand,  we  do  not  want  to  make  this  a  large  part  of 
our  work,  because  it  must  be  done  to  a  considerable  extent  when  it  is  wanted, 
regardless  of  whether  it  best  meets  our  immediate  needs  or  not.  A  quarter 
of  our  work  can  be  of  this  nature  without  harm. 


200       EXAMPLES  OE  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

(c)  Making  of  equipment  for  ourselves,  and,  we  hope,  by  a  system  of 
exchange,  for  other  schools  as  well. 

(t/)  The  manufacture  for  the  open  market  of  (i)  some  light,  fine  machin- 
ery ;  (2)  medium-weight  machine  tools  or  engine  work ;  (3)  rather  heavy 
rough  work,  such  as  is  offered  by  the  local  demand  for  rolling-mill  machinery; 

(e)  Jig  and  fixture  work  in  the  last  year  of  the  course. 

The  last  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  trade,  erecting,  we  shall  naturally 
have  in  connection  with  our  manufacturing,  but  we  also  are  taking  second- 
hand machinery  suitable,  when  rebuilt,  for  our  equipment. 

This  we  are  entirely  refinishing  and  erecting.  This  work  is  especially 
valuable  in  that  it  teaches  boys  ways  of  doing  work  without  having  every 
facility  for  doing  it.  There  is  no  part  of  our  work  that  is  more  interesting 
to  the  boy  than  this. 

While  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  predict  the  future  of  this  or  any  other 
school  on  the  basis  of  so  short  an  experience,  everything  points  to  success. 
The  only  trouble  that  we  can  see  ahead  lies  in  the  question  of  holding  the 
boys  to  complete  their  course.  We  have  set  this  at  four  years.  Experience 
may  show  that  three  years  are  enough  for  the  brighter  boys,  but  we  feel 
sure  that  for  the  average  boy  four  years  are  none  too  many. 

When  the  boys  find  that  they  can  get  positions  at  half  a  journeyman's 
pay  long  before  graduating,  there  will  doubtless  be  a  tendency  to  accept 
them,  which  will  be  difficult  to  offset  without  some  inducement  in  the  way 
of  compensation.    That  bridge,  however,  we  shall  not  cross  until  we  reach  it. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS 

Cincinnati  is  unique  among  American  cities,  since  it  has  a  city 
university  supported  by  taxation.  Dean  Herman  Schneider,  of 
the  department  of  engineering  of  the  University  of  Cincinnati, 
here  organized  in  1906  his  well-known  plan  of  cooperative  edu- 
cation. This  is  a  plan  whereby  the  university  gives  certain  of  its 
students  in  engineering  their  book  or  study  work,  while  the 
cooperative  manufacturer,  or  group  of  manufacturers,  provides 
facilities  for  the  students  to  gain  practical  training  in  the  shop. 
They  work  in  school  and  in  the  shop  during  alternating 
weekly  periods,  and  receive  wages  from  their  employers  while 
in  the  shop. 

The  plan  has  been  thoroughly  and  successfully  tested  in 
Cincinnati,  both  in  the  university  and  in  the  high  schools,  and 
has  been  adapted  to  radically  different  conditions  in  other  cities, 
notably  in  Fitchburg  and  Beverly,  Massachusetts.  As  school 
conditions  in  both  these  localities  are  essentially  typical  of  those 
of  the  average  city,  these  adaptations  will  be  described  rather 
than  the  initial  experiment  from  which  they  received  their 
original   inspiration. 

The  cooperative  industrial  work  of  both  school  systems 
was  fully  explained  at  the  19 10  convention  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education,  and  Bulle- 
tin No.  IJ,  Part  HI,  contains  the  full  addresses,  of  which  the 
following  are  abridgments,  the  descriptive  portions  only  being 
here  given. 

201 


202        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

The  Fitchburg  Plan 

By  W.  B.  Hunter 

Director  Industrial  Department,  Fitchburg  High  School,  Fitchburg, 
Massachusetts 

Mr.  Daniel  Simonds,  president  of  the  Simonds  Manufacturing 
Company,  and  several  other  Fitchburg  manufacturers,  were 
present  at  a  meeting  in  New  York  when  Professor  Schneider 
explained  his  system,  and  the  simplicity  and  practicability  of 
the  plan  appealed  to  them  immediately. 

Here  was  a  method  that  could  be  adapted  to  high-school 
students  who  wished  to  learn  a  trade  and  continue  their  edu- 
cation at  the  same  time. 

A  plan  was  drawn  up  by  the  manufacturers  for  a  combination 
shop  and  school  course,  and  was  presented  to  the  school  authori- 
ties, offering  the  use  of  their  shops  for  the  practical  instruction  of 
apprentices,  if  the  school  would  provide  the  necessary  collateral 
instruction.  This  the  school  board  agreed  to  do,  and  the  follow- 
ing manufacturers  entered  into  the  plan  :  the  Simonds  Manu- 
facturing Company,  manufacturers  of  saws  and  knives ;  the 
Fitchburg  Steam  Engine  Company,  manufacturers  of  steam 
engines  ;  the  Bath  Grinder  Company,  manufacturers  of  grinding 
machinery ;  the  Blake  Steam  Pump  and  Condenser  Company, 
manufacturers  of  pumping  machinery ;  the  Cowdrey  Machine 
Company,  manufacturers  of  special  and  woodworking  ma- 
chinery ;  the  Putnam  Machine  Company,  manufacturers  of 
lathes,  planers,  railroad  tools,  and  general  machinery ;  the 
Fitchburg  Machine  Company,  manufacturers  of  the  "  LO  Swing" 
lathe;  the  Brown  Steam  Engine  Company,  manufacturers  of 
steam  engines ;  the  Jennison  Company,  tinsmiths  and  piping 
engineers  ;  and  the  L.  H.  Goodnow  Company,  iron  founders. 
Here  are  shops,  far  superior  to  any  trade  school  that  can  be 
conceived  of,  given  to  the  city  for  the  training  of  mechanics, 


PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS  203 

and  the  city  is  not  called  upon  to  spend  a  single  dollar  for 
their  equipment. 

The  course  outlined  is  of  four  years'  duration,  the  same  as 
the  regular  high-school  course.  The  first  year  is  spent  wholly 
in  school,  and  the  next  three  years  alternate  weekly  between 
shop  and  school. 

The  manufacturers  take  the  boys  in  pairs,  so  that  by  alternat- 
ing they  have  one  of  the  pair  always  at  work,  and  likewise  the 
school  is  provided  with  one  of  the  pair. 

Each  Saturday  morning  the  boy  who  has  been  at  school  that 
week  goes  to  the  shop  in  order  to  get  hold  of  the  job  his  mate 
is  working  on,  and  be  ready  to  take  it  up  Monday  morning  when 
the  shop  boy  goes  into  school  for  a  week. 

Shop  work  consists  of  instruction  in  all  the  operations  nec- 
essary to  the  particular  trade. 

Boys  receive  pay  for  the  weeks  they  are  at  work  at  the  follow- 
ing rates  :  for  the  first  year,  i  o  cents  an  hour ;  the  second  year, 
1 1  cents  an  hour ;  and  the  third  year,  12-^  cents  an  hour ;  mak- 
ii^g  $5.50  a  week,  or  $165  for  the  first  year;  $6.05  a  week,  or 
$181,50  for  the  second  year  ;  and  $6.87  a  week,  or  $206.25  for 
the  third  year;  a  total  of  $552,75  for  the  three  years.  These 
rates  are  higher  than  the  former  apprentices  have  been  receiving, 
the  manufacturers  having  of  their  own  accord  raised  the  prices. 

The  20  seniors  earn $4, 1 25 

The  20  juniors  earn 3,630 

The  30  sophomores  earn 4>95o 

Total $12,705 

Here  then  is  a  strong  inducement  for  the  boy  to  continue  in 
school ;  he  can  earn  some  money  —  in  fact,  he  gets  more  than 
he  could  by  going  out  and  taking  the  ordinary  jobs  in  stores 
or  offices.  When  there  is  a  vacation  week  in  school,  work  is 
provided  in  the  shops.  These  periods  add  to  the  amount  of 
money  just  indicated  as  the  yearly  wage. 


204        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Every  candidate  is  given  a  trial  period  of  two  months,  begin- 
ning immediately  at  the  close  of  school  in  June,  and  if  he  likes 
the  work  and  shows  aptitude  for  the  trade,  he  takes  the  course ; 
otherwise  he  drops  out,  and,  if  he  chooses,  takes  up  some  other 
course  in  the  high  school.  Thus  we  give  the  boy  an  opportunity 
to  find  himself.  The  course  takes  a  boy  at  this  critical  period 
and  shows  him  how  work  and  education  are  correlated  rather 
than  things  apart. 

Our  classes  have  lio  difficulty  in  keeping  up  their  social  stand- 
ing. They  constitute  the  major  portion  of  the  football,  basket-ball, 
and  baseball  teams.  They  hold  offices  in  their  class  organizations 
and  are  popular  among  their  classmates. 

The  question  might  be  raised  as  to  the  physical  strain  of 
working  a  week  in  the  shop  with  regular  hours,  for  these  boys 
have  no  special  privileges  in  the  shops ;  they  are  subject  to  all 
of  the  shop  rules,  the  same  as  the  regular  workmen.  Not  a  sin- 
gle complaint  has  been  made  by  the  boys  that  the  work  is  too 
hard.  They  come  to  school  bright  and  active,  and  the  fact  that 
they  have  the  strength  and  ambition  to  enter  the  various  track 
events  discounts  any  fear  in  that  direction. 

What  we  believe  to  be  a  strong  feature  of  this  course  is  the 
agreement  entered  into  by  the  boy  and  his  employer.  After  he 
has  had  a  trial  period  of  two  months,  and  is  satisfied  that  he 
wants  to  learn  a  trade,  his  parents  agree  that  he  shall  continue 
the  arrangement  for  three  years ;  and  the  manufacturer,  on  his 
part,  agrees  to  teach  him  the  various  branches  of  the  trade  des- 
ignated in  this  agreement.  The  arrangement  is  mutual ;  each  is 
bound  to  give  the  other  a  square  deal.  It  is  a  business  contract 
and  means  something. 

What  should  be  taught  in  such  a  course  as  this  ?  Since  the 
school  term  is  only  twenty  weeks  a  year,  it  is  evident  that  only 
such  subjects  as  are  of  practical  value  to  the  student  in  the  pur- 
suit of  his  livelihood,  looking,  of  course,  to  advancement  in  that 


PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS  205 

pursuit,  should  be  included.  In  fact,  that  was  the  point  insisted 
upon  by  the  manufacturers  —  that  this  course  be  such  as  would 
make  them  better  mechanics,  and  capable  of  advancing  to  the 
highest  possibilities  in  the  trade.  Better  a  little  done  well  than 
a  smattering  of  a  large  variety  of  subjects.  The  regular  courses 
of  high-school  study  were  discarded,  precedent  was  ignored,  and 
such  subjects  were  selected  as  would  fit  the  students  to  be  intel- 
ligent mechanics.    This  is  the  course. 

First  Ykar.    All  School  Work 

English  and  current  events 5 

Arithmetic,  tables,  and  simple  shop  problems 5 

Algebra 5 

Free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing  and  bench  work      ...  8 

Second  Year.   School  and  Shop  Work 

English 5 

Shop  mathematics,  algebra,  and  geometry 5 

Physics 4 

Civics 2 

Mechanism  of  machines 5 

Free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing 6 

THUiD  Year.    School  and  Shop  Work 

English 5 

Shop  mathematics 5 

Chemistry 4 

Physics 4 

Mechanism  of  machines 5 

First  aid  to  injured r 

Free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing 6 

Fourth  Year.   School  and  Shop  Work 

English 5 

Commercial  geography  and  business  methods 2 

Shop  mathematics 4 

Mechanism  of  machines 4 

Physics,  electricity,  and  heat 4 

Chemistry 6 

Free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing 5 


2o6       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

English  is  taught  throughout  the  four  years.  In  order  that 
he  may  speak  and  write  intelUgently,  the  pupil  is  given  forms 
of  business  papers,  shop  terms,  and  spelling. 

Current  events  and  industrial  history,  the  daily  happenings  in 
the  industrial  world,  the  history  of  the  iron  industry,  factory 
systems,  new  inventions,  and  mechanical  journals  are  discussed 
in  order  to  keep  in  touch  with  mechanical  affairs. 

Mathematics  begin  with  simple  propositions  in  mensuration, 
fractions,  metric  system,  and  circular  measure.  General  shop 
mathematics  deal  with  problems  on  cutting  speeds  and  feeds, 
belting,  gearing,  strength  of  materials,  and  general  cost  figuring. 

Algebra  is  taken  up  to  give  facility  in  using  the  formulae  so 
common  in  the  trade  journals  and  handbooks,  and  leads  up  to 
simple  geometric  and  trigonometric  formulae. 

In  what  we  term  mechanism  we  treat  of  the  construction  and 
uses  of  the  various  machine  tools  that  every  shop  contains.  The 
names  and  uses  of  every  part  are  learned  in  the  school  as  well 
as  in  the  shop.  The  reasons  for  certain  shapes  of  the  various 
parts,  kinds  of  material  used  in  their  construction,  shapes  and 
kind  of  tools  used,  and  their  cutting  action  are  clearly  pointed  out 
in  the  analysis  of  the  shop  work. 

Physics  is  the  study  of  the  laws  underlying  all  mechanics, 
and  here  again  the  study  of  working  examples  is  emphasized 
rather  than  the  theories  of  abstruse  phenomena. 

Chemistry  takes  up  the  nature  and  qualities  of  metals  and 
salts,  tests  that  can  ordinarily  be  applied  to  fractured  metals, 
hardening  and  tempering  processes. 

Commercial  geography  comprehends  the  study  of  the  source 
of  supply  of  the  various  industries,  preparation  and  methods  of 
transportation,  cost  of  materials,  railway  systems,  waterways,  etc. 

First  aid  to  the  injured  is  made  a  subject  of  instruction.  There 
is  no  place  where  accidents  are  more  liable  to  happen  than  in 
the  shop,  and  some  knowledge  of  how  to  care  for  the  injured  is 


PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS  207 

a  valuable  asset  to  the  workman.  The  textbook  of  the  National 
First  Aid  Association  is  used  for  this  study. 

Drawing  is  the  sign  language  of  the  mechanic.  Almost  in- 
variably, in  explaining  an  object  or  piece  of  work,  he  takes  his 
pencil  and  makes  or  attempts  to  make  a  drawing.  Hence  we 
devote  a  large  share  of  our  drawing  period  to  free-hand  work. 
We  begin  with  simple  objects  and  then  take  up  machine  parts. 
Thus  the  boy  sees  the  object  and  at  the  same  time  becomes 
familiar  with  the  proportions  and  shapes  of  ordinary  machine 
parts.  Later  he  draws  them  mechanically  with  instruments 
to  scale. 

Civics  and  American  history  are  essential  to  good  citizenship, 
and  a  careful  study  of  the  city  and  state  government  is  necessary 
for  intelligent  and  progressive  work.  This  end  is  what  we  have 
in  mind  when  teaching  this  subject. 

Business  methods  introduce  the  study  of  the  organization  of 
shop  systems,  including  the  receiving  of  materials,  laying  out  of 
work,  tagging,  Inspecting,  and  routing  of  work  through  the  shop, 
and  also  the  consideration  of  general  office  systems. 

The  workman  will  see  the  dependence  of  one  department  on 
the  other,  the  necessity  for  the  cooperation  of  all  to  secure  good 
results.  He  will  appreciate  the  cost  of  doing  business,  and  he 
will  see  that  it  is  not  all  profit ;  that  it  costs  something  to  erect 
and  equip  a  manufacturing  plant,  conduct  an  office,  and  main- 
tain a  corps  of  salesmen  and  advertising  agents.  In  short,  he 
will  be  given  an  idea  of  the  great  responsibilities  of  the  employer. 
This  will  help  solve  the  labor  and  capital  problem. 

The  method  pursued  to  put  the  scheme  into  operation  was 
this  :  On  August  i,  1908,  I  began  interviewing  applicants  and 
their  parents.  Previously  the  high  school  and  the  public  had 
been  informed  that  the  course  would  start  in  the  fall.  Boys  were 
selected  who  wished  to  follow  the  trades,  and  eighteen  were 
chosen  to  start  the  course.    By  daily  visits  to  the  shops  during 


2o8        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

this  period  the  necessary  arrangements  were  rnade,  and  by  the 
opening  of  school  in  September  these  boys  were  all  at  work. 
On  the  seventh  of  the  month  the  boys  were  paired  off,  and 
half  of  them  were  assigned  to  work  in  the  shops  during  the 
alternate  weeks  of  the  school  year  while  the  rest  came  to  school, 
the  "  pairs  "  changing  places  with  each  other  every  week.  Some 
boys  dropped  out  while  others  came  into  the  course,  so  that  our 
initial  class  has  twenty  pupils  in  it. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  this  half-school  and  half-shop 
year  was  the  second  year  in  the  regular  high-school  course. 
Now  all  four  classes  are  in  operation,  with  20  seniors,  20 
juniors,  30  sophomores,  and  30  freshmen,  making  70  boys  at 
work  in  the  shops,  and  100  in  the  course. 

By  weekly  visits  to  the  shops,  and  by  inquiries  of  the  boys 
during  their  week  at  school,  I  keep  in  close  touch  with  their 
work. 

A  written  report  of  the  work  in  the  shop  is  also  passed  in  on 
Monday  morning  of  the  school  week,  and  is  inspected  and  filed 
for  reference. 

Every  opportunity  for  questions  regarding  shop  work  is  en- 
couraged in  the  school,  and  these  questions  are  most  intelligent. 
Many  problems  are  discussed  that  the  shop  has  not  the  time  to 
consider,  and  the  interchange  of  methods  used  in  the  different 
shops  broadens  and  helps  all  the  boys. 

We  are  now  in  our  third  year,  and  the  first  class  will  graduate 
in  June,  191 1,  as  journeymen.  The  cooperative  course,  by  the 
verdict  of  the  students,  the  cooperating  manufacturers,  the 
school  authorities,  and  the  community,  has  proved  an  unquali- 
fied success,  and  there  is  no  question  in  my  mind  but  that  the 
plan  is  the  correct  one  to  produce  just  the  kind  of  workmen 
that  the  country  demands,  and  give  to  the  workman  the  ladder 
to  climb  to  the  highest  level  that  his  native  talents  and  ability 
will  allow. 


PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS  309 

The  Beverly  Industrial  School 

By  Aoelbekt  L.  Safford 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Chelsea,  Massachusetts 

I  am  to  say  a  few  words  about  the  Beverly  Industrial  School. 
I  ought  perhaps  to  preface  my  remarks  with  the  statement  that 
I  am  not  now  in  charge  of  this  school,  having  severed  my  con- 
nection with  the  Beverly  schools  last  August. 

To  view  an  institution  or  a  movement  in  proper  perspective, 
it  is  often  necessary  to  know  its  origin  and  the  circumstances 
attendant  upon  its  advent.  The  initial  impulse  that  led  to  the 
establishment  of  this  school  arose  from  a  purpose  to  promote  the 
social  betterment  of  the  large  number  of  young  people  who  leave 
school  in  the  later  grammar-school  or  earlier  high-school  grades, 
having  little  or  no  specific  preparation  for  earning  a  livelihood, 
and  little  immediate  wealth-producing  ability  in  any  direction. 
Their  unpreparedness  and  consequent  struggle  against  fearful 
odds  are  painfully  apparent  to  even  the  most  casual  observer. 

The  actual  realization  of  this  purpose  became  possible  through 
the  cooperation  of  Mr.  M.  B.  Kaven  and  his  associates  in  the 
management  of  the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company.  These 
men,  I  think,  were  actuated  by  a  purpose  to  promote  on  a  broad 
and  equitable  basis  any  plan  that  tended  to  provide  a  proper 
supply  of  competent  journeymen  mechanics,  who  should  possess 
the  necessary  all-round  skill  and  experience  for  tool  and  jig 
making  and  for  constructing  experimental  machines.  It  was  no 
part  of  theft"  present  purpose  to  make  foremen,  engineers,  or 
inventors.  It  was  no  part  of  their  purpose  to  provide  an  excess 
of  workmen  to  take  the  place  of  present  employees  at  a  reduced 
wage.  The  purpose,  as  in  the  lower  industrial  schools  of  Ger- 
many, was  to  fill  up  the '"  rank  and  file,"  not  to  provide  "officers 
of  the  line."  I  received  through  the  mail,  the  other  day,  a  pam- 
phlet containing  a  rather  elaborate,  though  it  seemed  to  me  a 


2IO       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

somewhat  opinionated  argument,  tending  to  show  that  the  lab- 
oratory of  an  institute  of  technology  is  superior  to  a  part-time 
industrial  school  as  an  efficient  means  of  training  skilled  me- 
chanics. It  would  have  been  equally  to  the  point  to  have  argued 
that  the  moon  offered  superior  advantages  as  a  place  for  teaching 
the  art  of  aviation.  How  shall  the  aviator  reach  the  moon  ?  How 
shall  boys,  dropping  out  of  the  grammar-school  or  lower  high- 
school  grades,  past  fourteen  years  old,  generally  dull  at  books,  in 
nearly  all  cases  without  funds,  reach  the  laboratories  of  an  in- 
stitute of  technology  ? 

The  pupil  entering  the  Beverly  Industrial  School  must  have 
reached  the  age  of  fourteen  and  have  completed  the  sixth  year  or 
grade  of  the  elementary  schools.  He  must  also  obtain  from  the 
school  physician  a  certificate  to  the  effect  that  he  is  physically 
able  to  perform  the  work  to  be  undertaken.  Many  of  the  pupils 
have  completed  the  elementary  school  (eight  years),  and  some 
have  taken  one  or  two  years  in  the  high  school.  The  ages  vary 
from  fourteen  to  eighteen,  but  sixteen  is  considered  the  most 
favorable  age  for  undertaking  this  work,  and  the  end  of  the 
tenth  year  in  school  (second  year  of  the  high  school)  the  most 
favorable  place  for  it  in  the  public-school  curriculum. 

Very  great  care  has  been  taken  in  the  matter  of  vocational 
direction  of  candidates  for  this  school.  Many  have  been  advised 
not  to  enter  it.  Many  have  been  refused  admission.  Only  those 
have  been  received  who,  after  a  full  understanding  and  consul- 
tation with  parents,  have  expressed  the  desire  to  enter  with  the 
determination  to  stay  until  they  have  learned  th^  machinist's 
trade,  and  who  appeared  physically  and  mentally  fit  to  undertake 
this  task. 

The  Beverly  Industrial  School  was  not  established  in  response 
to  a  strong  popular  demand,  and  consequently  is  not  yet  strongly 
intrenched  in  the  popular  favor.  It  has  been  received  sympathet- 
ically on  the  whole,  though  not  altogether  without  suspicion  on 


PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS  2 1 1 

the  part  of  a  few  that  it  was  intended  to  benefit  the  manufacturer 
rather  than  the  boy. 

Such  was  not  the  case,  and,  contrary  to  a  popular  impression, 
the  idea  of  the  school  and  the  main  features  of  its  organization 
did  not  originate  with  the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company, 
and  the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company  does  not  manage 
the  school.  The  school  is  of  course  conducted  in  a  manner  to 
receive  their  approval  as  a  whole,  though  not  necessarily  in 
detail. 

The  school  was  indebted  to  the  Fitchburg  plan  and  the 
University  of  Cincinnati  for  the  half-time  idea,  which  was 
adopted  from  the  start.  The  pupils  are  in  two  divisions  of  about 
forty  each,  which  continue  alternately  one  week  at  the  factory 
and  one  week  at  the  high  school ;  but  at  the  factory  they  are  in 
a  separate  department  and  do  not  come  into  contact  with  regular 
foremen  or  workmen,  and  at  the  high  school  are  in  separate 
classes  with  separate  instructors,  different  hours,  and  wholly  dif- 
ferent entrance  requirements  and  course  of  study.  This  school 
is  radically  different  from  the  Fitchburg  plan  in  the  fact  that, 
through  a  unique  scheme  of  cooperation,  the  trustees  of  the 
school  retain  full  control  of  the  pupils  while  in  the  factory,  and 
the  same  person  instructs  a  particular  division  in  both  factory 
and  school.  By  this  means  the  work  is  conducted  in  a  way  to 
contribute  most  effectually  to  the  boy's  progress  in  his  trade,  and 
not  to  suit  the  exigencies  of  the  factory ;  and  the  instruction  is 
imparted  by  a  trained  teacher  and  not  left  to  the  uncertain  ped- 
agogical ability  of  the  ordinary  foreman.  Most  important  of  all, 
it  safeguards  the  pupils  from  exploitation  and  the  manufacturers 
from  unjust  suspicion.  The  course  of  study  is  correlated  with 
the  shop  work  as  the  major  center  of  correlation,  and  with  the 
pupil's  duties  to  himself  and  society  as  the  minor  center  of  cor- 
relation. Many  of  the  principal  features  of  the  course  of  study 
were  adopted  from  the  course  of  study  of  the  continuation  school 


212        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

for  machinists'  apprentices  in  Munich.  However,  the  aim  has 
been  to  try  to  understand  the  needs  of  these  particular  boys  in 
relation  to  the  work  they  are  to  do,  and  to  provide  for  these 
needs  in  the  most  direct  way  possible.  The  length  of  the  course 
of  study  has  not  been  determined,  but  is  expected  to  be  three  or 
four  years ;  it  will  probably  vary  greatly  with  the  ability  of  the 
pupil.  Much  of  the  instruction  tends  to  become  individual,  and  it 
has  been  found  feasible  to  admit  new  pupils  at  any  time  in  the  year. 

The  Board  of  Trustees  was  created  by  the  following  order  of 
the  city  council  of  Beverly. 

On  May  i8,  1909,  Alderman  James  A.  Torrey  introduced 
the  following  order  in  the  Board  of  Aldermen  : 

CITY  OF  BEVERLY 
Board  of  Aldermen,  May  18,  1909 

Ordered,  That  an  Independent  Industrial  School  be  and  is  hereby  estab- 
lished in  Beverly  in  accordance  with  Chapter  505  of  the  Acts  of  1906,  as 
supplemented  by  Chapter  572  of  the  Acts  of  1908,  for  the  purpose  of 
instructing  youths  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  twenty-one  years  in 
day  or  evening  classes  in  the  machinist's  trade  or  in  such  other  industrial 
trades  or  occupations  as  shall  be  deemed  expedient  by  the  Board  of  Trus- 
tees of  said  Industrial  School,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  any 
persons  already  employed  in  the  industries  in  evening  classes  in  such  indus- 
trial trades  or  occupations  as  shall  be  deemed  expedient  by  the  Board  of 
Trustees  of  said  Industrial  School. 

The  management  and  control  of  the  Beverly  Independent  Industrial 
School  and  of  all  property  pertaining  to  the  same  shall  be  vested  in  a  Board 
of  Trustees,  consisting  of  his  Honor,  the  Mayor  of  Beverly,  five  members 
of  the  Beverly  School  Committee,  to  be  designated  each  year  by  the  chair- 
man of  the  school  committee,  one  or  more  citizens  of  Beverly,  appointed 
for  a  term  of  three  years  by  his  Honor,  the  Mayor,  as  follows :  Each  pro- 
prietor of  an  industry  who  shall  provide  facilities  satisfactory  to  the  Board 
of  Trustees  for  the  practice  work  of  pupils  of  the  school  shall  be  represented 
by  one  member  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  nominated  by  the  proprietor  of 
the  industry  and  appointed  by  the  Mayor. 

The  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Beverly  Independent  Industrial  School 
shall  be  authorized  to  accept  the  cooperation  of  the  school  committee,  and 


PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS  213 

to  occupy  and  use  school  property  with  the  permission  of  the  school  com- 
mittee, and  to  enter  into  such  arrangements  of  cooperation  with  proprietors 
of  the  various  industries  as  the  Board  of  Trustees  shall  deem  expedient. 

The  Board  of  Trustees  shall  be  authorized  to  elect  a  secretary  and 
executive  officer  and  all  other  necessary  officers  and  teachers,  and  to  fix 
their  salaries. 

The  Board  of  Trustees  shall  conduct  all  the  affairs  of  the  Beverly  Inde- 
pendent Industrial  School  in  such  a  manner  as  to  receive  the  approval  of 
the  Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial  Education,  and  to  entitle  the 
City  of  Beverly  to  be  reimbursed  by  the  Commonwealth  for  such  portion 
of  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  Industrial  School  as  is  provided  by  the 
laws  of  the  Commonwealth. 

This  order  passed  both  branches  without  amendment,  and 
was  signed  June  26,  1909. 

The  trustees  consist  of  the  mayor,  the  chairman  of  the  school 
committee,  four  other  members  of  the  school  committee,  and 
the  assistant  superintendent  of  the  works  of  the  United  Shoe 
Machinery  Company  at  Beverly.  The  superintendent  of  schools 
acts  as  secretary  and  executive  officer.  The  assistant  superin- 
tendent of  the  factory  as  chairman  of  the  committee  on  instruction 
and  the  superintendent  of  schools  as  executive  officer  of  the 
trustees  have  directed  the  operations  of  the  school,  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Trustees.  While  the  management 
of  this  school  is  independent  of  both  the  factory  and  the  high 
school,  it  has  access  to  both,  and  shares  in  the  facilities  that 
they  both  offer  in  equipment,  organization,  and  established  stand- 
ards of  discipline,  workmanship,  and  general  efficiency.  It  is 
of  the  greatest  value  and  importance  in  an  undertaking  of  this 
character  to  be  closely  associated  with  a  school  and  with  a  factory 
with  established  standards.  The  high-school  system  stands  for 
the  best  educational  practice,  the  factory  system  stands  for  the 
best  methods  of  manufacturing.  The  Industrial  School  to  prop- 
erly fulfill  its  functions  must  measure  up  to  both  standards. 
Pedagogically  it  must  be  a  good  school,  and  industrially  it  must 
make  efficient  workmen. 


214       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

The  fact  should  not  be  overlooked  that  such  a  school  as  the 
Beverly  Industrial  School  can  be  established  at  almost  a  nominal 
expense  for  buildings  and  equipment,  the  providing  for  which 
sometimes  proves  to  be  so  serious  an  obstacle  that  a  beginning 
is  delayed  indefinitely.  Also  in  this  school  not  only  the  industrial 
experience  and  acumen  of  the  manufacturer  is  utilized,  but  his 
continued  interest  and  cooperation  are  assured.  These,  I  believe, 
broadly  speaking,  are  fundamental.  If  industrial  education  is  to 
succeed  generally,  we  shall  require  help  from  the  manufacturer. 
He  cannot  remain  passive.  He  must  bear  his  part  of  the  burden, 
both  administrative  and  financial.  Another  characteristic  of  this 
school  is  that  it  is  distinctly  a  public  school,  both  at  the  high 
school  and  at  the  factory.  In  some  other  schools  that  I  have 
investigated,  pupils  that  receive  instruction  in  a  factory  are 
indentured  to  the  manufacturer,  and  there  is  not  wanting  the 
suspicion  that  in  some  cases  the  boys  were  exploited  for  the  profit 
of  the  manufacturer.  In  this  school  there  is  no  indenture.  A 
pupil  is  free  to  leave  at  any  time,  if  he  thinks  it  advantageous. 
But  most  important  and  essential  of  all  the  general  principles  of 
the  conduct  of  this  school  is  the  utilization  of  the  product  to  pay 
the  cost  of  the  raw  materials,  and  to  afford  the  pupil  remuneration 
for  his  labor  in  proportion  to  his  competency  as  a  workman. 
Industrial  schools  are  bound  to  be  expensive,  and  unless  the  prod- 
uct pays  at  least  the  cost  of  raw  materials  the  necessary  expense 
of  such  schools  will  be  prohibitive  for  many  municipalities  for  a 
long  time  to  come.  It  is  almost  equally  important  that  the  pupil 
should  have  the  stimulus  of  some  remuneration  for  his  labor. 

The  general  arrangement  between  the  trustees  and  the  United 
Shoe  Machinery  Company  is  as  follows  : 

The  company  has  organized  in  the  factory  a  separate  depart- 
ment devoted  exclusively  to  the  school,  and  has  equipped  it  fully 
with  the  necessary  machine  tools  for  a  general  machine  shop,  to 
accommodate  about  forty  workmen  at  one  time. 


PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS  215 

These  machines  include  various  types  of  drills,  millers, 
grinders,  lathes ;  planers,  and  screw  machines.  The  operating 
accounts  of  this  department,  known  in  the  factory  as  the  "  school 
job,"  are  kept  by  the  factory  accounting  department  entirely 
distinct,  as  if  the  "school  job"  were  a  separate  factory.  The 
company  furnishes  the  equipment,  raw  materials,  and  drawings 
for  the  work  to  be  performed,  and  charges  against  the  school 
the  proper  amounts  for  "  overhead  charges,"  i.e.  power,  light, 
heat,  and  rental  of  floor  space  and  machinery,  and  for  the 
cost  of  raw  materials.  The  company  also  pays  the  school 
instructor  when  he  is  acting  as  foreman  of  the  '"  school 
job,"  and  debits  the  school  account  for  that  amount.  All  prod- 
uct that  passes  the  inspection  of  the  regular  factory  inspectors 
is  taken  by  the  company  at  established  prices,  determined  by 
the  cost  of  production  of  a  like  article  in  the  factory.  The 
"  school  job  "  is  credited  with  the  value  of  these  products. 
One  half  of  the  piece  price  for  these  products  is  paid  to  the  pupils 
by  the  company  and  charged  to  the  school  account.  The  balance 
of  the  value  of  the  product  is  what  pays  the  difference  in  cost 
between  maintaining  the  "  school  job"  and  any  similar  job  in  the 
factory.  If  in  any  case  the  "  school  job  "  shows  a  profit,  it  is 
agreed  by  the  company  that  such  profit  shall  belong  to  the 
school,  to  be  distributed  in  increased  wages  or  in  any  other  way 
that  the  trustees  may  determine.  Thus  far  there  has  been  in 
the  maintenance  account  a  moderate  deficit,  which  the  company 
has  carried.  The  proportion  of  deficit  has  constantly  decreased 
as  the  pupils  have  become  more  proficient,  and  it  seems  quite 
possible  that  the  "school  job"  will  ultimately  be  self-supporting. 

Whatever  may  be  said  about  the  piece  price  as  a  basis  for 
wages  of  regular  workmen,  it  seems  to  the  management  of  this 
school  that  it  is  unquestionably  the  best  system  for  their  pupils, 
because  the  pay  envelope  is  to  the  boy  a  constant  measure  of  his 
productive  efficiency  both  in  utilization  of  time  and  in  standards 


2l6       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

of  workmanship.  If  he  wastes  time,  he  does  not  turn  out  so 
many  pieces  ;  if  he  is  inaccurate  in  workmanship,  the  pieces  do 
not  pass  inspection.  Thus  the  importance  of  a  proper  balance 
between  time  and  good  workmanship  is  constantly  impressed 
upon  him.  The  hours  and  discipline  at  the  factory  are  in  general 
the  same  as  required  of  regular  workmen. 

At  present  the  pupils  work  fifty  hours  a  week,  having  a  nine- 
hour  day,  with  Saturday  afternoon  off.  The  instruction  at  the 
factory  is  of  course  individual,  and  comprises  the  operation  of  the 
different  machine  tools  on  various  materials  and  classes  of  work 
and  specializing  on  machine  tools  for  which  special  aptitude 
is  shown.  At  first  the  pupils  at  the  factory  manufacture  simple 
machine  parts,  using  jigs  and  other  labor-saving  devices,  as  in 
other  parts  of  the  factory.  Gradually  they  learn  to  set  up  their 
own  work,  and  as  fast  as  they  gain  confidence  and  become 
proficient  on  one  machine,  they  are  changed  to  another.  The 
machines  are  not  taken  in  a  particular  order,  and  necessarily  the 
different  pupils  are  using  different  kinds  of  machines  at  any 
given  time.  As  the  pupils  become  more  skillful  they  will  manu- 
facture tools  and  jigs,  and  it  is  expected  that  eventually  some 
complete  machines  will  be  built  and  assembled  in  the  school 
shop,  although  in  the  factory  system  all  machine  parts  are  sent 
to  the  general  stock  room  and  assembled  from  that  source. 

Each  pupil  keeps-  a  notebook  in  which  he  writes  a  description 
of  each  article  manufactured  by  himself,  draws  a  free-hand  me- 
chanical sketch  of  it  with  dimensions,  and  describes  the  operations 
in  its  manufacture  and  the  tools  used.  When  the  week  at  the 
factory  is  over,  the  machinist  instructor  accompanies  his  class  to 
the  high  school  and,  for  the  following  week,  gives  instruction 
five  hours  daily  in  various  kinds  of  drawing,  shop  mathematics, 
machine-shop  practice,  and  notebook  records  of  the  work  done 
at  the  factory.  Other  instructors  from  the  high-school  staff  give 
instruction  for  three  hours  daily  in  science,  business  and  social 


PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS  217 

practice,  and  in  personal,  social,  and  civic  duties.  Each  division 
is  divided  into  two  groups,  somewhat  according  to  proficiency, 
and  one  class  usually  studies  while  the  other  recites,  after  the 
manner  of  the  elementary  schools. 

There  arc  many  advantages  in  this  plan  6f  having  the 
machinist  instructor  accompany  his  class  at  both  school  and 
factory.  The  theoretical  work  can  be  made  more  available  for 
immediate  application,  and  the  shop  work  can  be  done  with  a 
more  intelligent  regard  for  the  principles,  mathematical  or 
otherwise,  that  underlie  it.  The  dual  experience  is  good  for 
the  instructor.  The  work  at  the  factory  keeps  him  from  imprac- 
tical theoretical  instruction  in  the  school,  and  the  teaching  in  the 
school  gives  him  the  pedagogical  insight  necessary  to  avoid 
being  a  superficial  and  ineffective  instructor  in  the  shop.  The 
school  day  for  these  pupils  approximates  the  factory  day,  and 
is  about  eight  hours,  with  the  Saturday  holiday  and  no  home 
lessons.   All  studying  is  to  be  done  at  the  school. 

The  machinist  instructor  has  charge  of  the  class  from  8  a.m. 
to  12  M.  and  from  i  to  2  p.m.  Part-time  specialists  have  charge 
of  the  class  from  2  to  5  p.m.  In  general  the  machinist  instructor 
teaches  the  subjects  belonging  to  the  major  center  of  correlation, 
the  shop  work ;  while  the  special  part-time  instructors  deal  with 
the  subjects  belonging  to  the  minor  center  of  correlation,  the 
pupil's  obligations  to  himself  and  to  society.  The  course  of  study 
for  this  industrial  school  is  still  in  the  making,  but  certain  gen- 
eral lines  of  study  have  been  laid  down  that  seem  permanent, 
and  certain  principles  applied  that  appear  to  be  fundamental. 
Two  chief  considerations  must  determine  the  choice  of  subjects, 
to  be  taught  in  an  industrial  school  —  the  demands  of  the  trade, 
and  the  personal,  social,  and  civic  responsibility  of  the  man. 

At  the  beginning  and  until  the  pupil  has  had  considerable 
shop  experience  there  should  be  no  formal  development  of 
the  topics  in  logical  order,  as  in  the  ordinary  textbook.    The 


2l8        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

substance  of  the  instruction  should  be  the  real  problem,  not  its 
shadow  or  imitation  from  a  textbook.  In  other  words,  science, 
mathematics,  and  drawing  should  be  begun  as  they  are  applied 
in  that  industry.  Formal  and  systematic  treatment  by  develop- 
ment in  logical  order  should  be  reserved  to  the  most  advanced 
years  of  the  course,  if  introduced  at  all.  There  is  danger  of 
erring  in  this  matter,  especially  on  the  part  of  high  schools 
offering  vocational  courses,  or  any  school  in  which  the  teachers 
have  not  practiced  the  trade  for  which  they  are  preparing  the 
pupils.  If  time  permitted,  I  should  be  glad  to  speak  of  the  treat- 
ment of  some  of  the  subjects  in  detail.  I  will  merely  allude  to 
a  few  points  that  seem  distinctive.  Drawing  is  divided  into  (i) 
mechanical  sketching ;  (2)  working  drawings  to  scale ;  (3)  per- 
spective ;  (4)  free-hand  industrial  drawing ;  color  and  design  ; 
(5)  machine  design.  Considerable  stress  has  been  laid  on  the 
mechanical  sketch  as  fundamental.  These  sketches  may  be  made 
free-hand  or  with  the  use  of  the  ruler  and  simple  instruments, 
but  are  not  to  be  drawn  to  scale.  Coordinate  paper  may  be  used 
in  order  to  approximate  scale  if  desired,  but  it  is  not  necessary. 
All  dimensions  required  for  making  a  complete  working  drawing 
to  scale,  with  as  many  different  views  as  necessary,  are  to  be  in- 
dicated in  figures  on  the  mechanical  sketch,  so  that  no  reference 
to  the  object  will  be  necessary  while  making  the  working  drawing. 

The  ability  to  make  such  a  sketch  is  of  greater  value  in  itself 
to  the  workman  than  the  making  of  working  drawings.  Also 
the  ability  to  make  a  quick  sketch  of  the  essential  features  of 
a  complete  machine,  to  show  "  what  it  looks  like  "  and  '"  how  it 
"works,"  is  of  great  value  to  any  one. 

The  working  drawing  begins  from  the  start  with  drawings  of 
simple  machine  parts,  in  accordance  with  the  system  in  vogue 
in  the  drafting  department  of  the  factory. 

I  would  like  to  speak  of  mathematics  and  instruments  of 
precision,  of  current  and  historical  machinists'  literature,  and 


PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS  219 

of  lectures  on  modern  machine-shop  practice,  but  time  forbids. 
Science  is  treated  on  the  same  principle  as  the  mathematics ; 
first  the  applied  and  then  the  theoretical,  or  rather  the  theo- 
retical through  the  concrete.  The  general  topics  are  mechanics  ; 
electricity  as  applied  to  machinery  either  as  a  power  or  in  a 
process ;  chemistry  of  steels  and  other  materials,  and  of  their 
manipulations  as  in  tempering ;  also  lubricants  and  cooling 
mixtures. 

The  remaining  topics  are  not  particularly  related  to  the 
trade,  but  they  are  dealt  with  in  the  most  direct  and  practical 
way  that  we  are  able  to  devise.  They  are  grouped  under  the 
general  heads  of  business  and  social  forms  and  practices,  and 
personal,  social,  and  civic  duties. 

In  conclusion,  let  me  recapitulate  and  emphasize  a  few  fea- 
tures of  the  school  that  seem  to  us  good  and  important,  and 
speak  of  a  few  difficulties  which  we  have  encountered. 

(i)  This  school  has  the  best  educational  talent  and  facilities 
of  the  city  associated  with  the  best  industrial  talent  and  facilities, 
in  harmonious  cooperation.  There  has  been  no  friction.  The 
plan  works.  The  school  work  is  standardized  by  contact  with  an 
established  school,  and  the  shop  practice  by  contact  with  an 
established  factory. 

(2)  The  boys  in  the  factory  are  together  under  the  direction 
of  the  regular  machinist  instructor,  who  is  employed  by  the  school. 
The  Board  of  Trustees  is  responsible  for  the  proper  manage- 
ment of  the  practice  shop.  Of  necessity  the  methods  of  work 
conform  to  the  practices  of  the  factory,  as  they  ought,  but  in  case 
of  any  dispute  the  authority  of  the  trustees  is  absolute,  except 
that  the  company,  of  course,  has  the  right  to  withdraw  altogether 
from  the  arrangement. 

(3)  In  general,  the  workmen  have  looked  with  favor  on  this 
school.  From  a  third  to  a  half  of  the  pupils  are  sons  or  close 
relatives  of  workmen  in  the  factory.    Organized  labor  has  been 


220       EXAMPLES  OE  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

inclined  to  favor  the  Beverly  plan,  because  of  full  control  by 
public  authority. 

(4)  The  absence  of  indenture  is  in  keeping  with  a  democratic 
spirit  and  a  truly  public  school.  The  piece  price,  besides  its  other 
advantages,  makes  indenture  unnecessary. 

(5)  Half-time  for  classroom  work  is  not  unique,  but  it  is 
about  the  right  amount  and  should  be  emphasized  because  some 
schools  give  less. 

(6)  A  salable  product  is  necessary  partly  to  remunerate  the 
boy,  partly  to  reduce  the  cost  of  the  school,  but  chiefly  to  put  to 
the  test  day  by  day  the  boy's  actual  productive  ability. 

(7)  The  plan  of  having  the  machinist  instructor  accompany 
the  class  in  both  school  and  factory  is  desirable  for  many  reasons. 

(8)  The  general  scope  of  the  course  of  study  seems  to  be 
sufficient.  The  whole  career  of  the  school  has  been  singularly 
free  from  friction  or  controversy. 

But  we  have  our  troubles.  The  school  has  not  yet  passed  the 
experimental  stage.  It  has  not  yet  fully  achieved  the  standards 
that  it  has  set  for  itself,  and  of  course  there  are  a  multitude  of 
details  of  curriculum  and  practice  to  be  worked  out  and  stand- 
ardized. The  first  great  danger  to  this  school  is  a  certain  amount 
of  inertia  and  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  general  public.  If 
the  school  should  "  strike  a  snag,"  nobody  knows  what  attitude 
the  public  would  take.  Serious  consequences  might  result 
from  the  lack  of  the  right  kind  of  strong  public  support.  A 
second  difficulty  is  the  large  expense  of  such  a  school.  With  the 
shop  practice  self-supporting,  it  cost  $80  a  pupil  last  year.  The 
machinist  instructors  receive  from  $30  to  $35  per  week,  and 
the  part-time  specialists,  $1  or  $1.50  an  hour  for  fifteen  hours 
per  week ;  and  there  are  fifty  weeks  in  the  school  year.  The 
greatest  difficulty  of  all  has  been  to  secure  suitable  teachers. 
The  two  machinist  instructors  were  chosen  from  the  thirty-five 
hundred  employees  of  this  company,  and  there  were  less  than 


PART-TIME  COOPERATIVE  SCHOOLS  22  1 

half  a  dozen  that  we  felt  we  could  consider  at  all.  The  part- 
time  specialists  are  mainly  high-school  teachers  already  fully 
employed,  who  were  drafted  into  service  to  meet  the  need.  It 
ought  also  to  be  confessed  that  we  have  not  yet  achieved  in  the 
industrial  school  the  strong  moral  atmosphere  and  the  social  and 
aesthetic  ideals  that  are  the  goal  of  the  public  school.  The  moral 
fiber  of  the  boys  is  the  same,  but  there  is  a  certain  abandon  that 
smacks  of  the  factory  rather  than  the  school. 

But  despite  these  and  other  troubles,  we  believe  the  Beverly 
experiment  is  a  long  step  in  the  right  direction, 

A  comparison  of  the  two  plans  described  above  is  interesting. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  former  places  great  value  on  the 
binding  agreement  between  employer  and  pupil,  while  the  latter 
states  that  it  is  better  for  the  pupil  to  be  left  free  or  to  be 
subject  only  to  the  control  of  the  trustees. 

It  should  be  recalled  that  organized  labor  has  officially  placed 
itself  on  record  ^  as  strongly  opposed  to  the  cooperative  plan 
of  industrial  education.  It  is  believed  that  labor  will  find  little 
to  criticize  in  the  Beverly  plan,  with  its  absence  of  the  inden- 
ture, its  "  piece  work,"  and  its  domination  by  the  educational 
authorities. 

The  author  is  inclined  to  think  that  Mr.  Safford's  exposition 
of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  cooperative  plan  is 
the  most  careful,  discriminating,  and  impartial  statement  of  this 
subject  which  has  yet  appeared.  The  description  of  the  school 
is  accurate. 

The  part-time  plan  of  education  is  one  which  is  susceptible 
of  adaptation  to  such  widely  diverse  conditions  that  there  can 
be  little  doubt  of  its  ultimate  adoption  by  many  schools.     It 

'  See  "  Industrial  Education,"  p.  ii,  published  by  the  American  Federation 
of  I^bor,  Washington,  D.C.  It  should  be  said  that  labor  is  not  a  unit  on  this 
question,  and  that  prominent  representatives  of  labor  have  publicly  indorsed 
the  work  in  Cincinnati  and  even  in  Fitchburg. 


22  2       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

lends  itself,  perhaps  better  than  any  other  plan,  to  the  limitations 
of  the  small  town  or  village.  One  might  almost  say  that  wher- 
ever two  boys  could  be  '"  paired,"  and  one  employer  could  be 
found  who  would  work  them  alternately,  any  school,  except  the 
most  conservative  and  inflexible,  could  inaugurate  a  system  of 
part-time  cooperative  education.  The  plan  has  been  put  into 
practice  not  only  in  connection  with  large  machine-making 
industrial  concerns,  but  also  in  the  textile  industry,  in  office 
work,  and  even  in  agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL 

It  should  be  recalled  that  our  problem  is  an  extremely  large 
and  complicated  one,  and  that,  with  all  possible  agencies  at  work, 
we  shall  still  have  boys  and  girls  forced  into  the  industrial  market 
with  inadequate  preparation  and  small  appreciation  of  the  nature 
of  life's  economic  problem. 

The  continuation  school  is  planned  to  administer  to  the  needs 
of  such  boys  and  girls.  The  state  proposes  to  retain  an  interest 
in  them  for  a  longer  period,  and  to  assume  more  responsibility 
for  their  success  and  happiness.- 

Such  a  plan  contemplates  the  cooperation  of  the  school, 
the  employer,  and  the  community,  and  its  success  depends  upon 
a  keen  civic  consciousness,  and  especially  upon  some  strong  per- 
sonality to  awaken  that  consciousness  and  to  direct  subsequent 
action.  It  is  to  be  doubted  whether  the  continuation  schools  of 
Munich  would  have  attained  such  conspicuous  success  without 
the  guiding  interest  and  the  optimistic  personality  of  Dr. 
Kerschensteiner.  As  it  is,  they  stand  as  the  best  examples 
of  this  type  of  school. 

Wherever  the  industries  of  a  community  are  sufficiently 
homogeneous,  or  where  any  industry  or  group  of  industries  can 
decide  on  a  body  of  knowledge  which  it  would  be  desirable 
for  their  operatives  to  acquire,  and  especially  wherever  the  super- 
intendent of  schools  is  able  and  willing  to  secure  the  necessary 
conditions  of  cooperation,  the  continuation  school  should  have 
wide  usefulness. 

223 


224       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

The  most  striking  example  of  continuation  schools  in  this 
country  is  that  afforded  by  the  city  of  Cincinnati,  In  an  address 
before  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial 
Education,  Boston,  November  i8,  19 lo,  Mr.  l^'rank  B.  Dyer, 
superintendent  of  schools,  described  the  opportunities  in  that 
city  for  obtaining  an  industrial  education.  After  speaking  of 
the  establishment  of  the  part-time  cooperative  plan  for  which 
Cincinnati  is  so  well  known,  and  the  new  vocational  high  schools 
which  have  still  further  utilized  that  plan,  he  explained  the 
purpose  and  described  the  operation  of  the  continuation  schools 
as  follows : 

"  Of  course  the  school  shops  run  at  night  and  are  open  to  adult 
workers  and  also  to  apprentices.  There  are  twenty-four  hun- 
dred enrolled  at  present  in  the  industrial  night  classes.  It  was 
soon  found,  however,  that  night  work  does  not  attract  the  ap- 
prentice. Concentrated  attention  to  a  machine  for  ten  hours 
leaves  little  surplus  energy  to  draw  on  at  night.  A  city  offers 
many  attractions  more  alluring  to  a  young  mechanic  than  a  night 
school.  After  repeated  and  urgent  advertising  in  shops  we  were 
able  to  get  less  than  eight  hundred  apprentices  in  the  iron 
industry  who  would  settle  down  to  regular  night  instruction. 
For  example,  we  got  twenty-six  pattern-maker's  apprentices, 
and  those  dwindled  to  sixteen.  They  were  not  to  blame.  They 
had  not  the  physical  endurance. 

"Thus  we  came  to  see  that  the  apprentice  is  distinctly  a  day- 
time proposition.  His  education  must  be  given  not  in  addition 
to  his  work  but  in  the  place  of  a  part  of  his  work.  Some  of 
the  progressive  manufacturers  of  our  city,  realizing  this,  intro- 
duced apprentices'  schools  in  their  factories,  but  they  found 
themselves  unable,  single-handed,  to  cope  successfully  with  the 
situation  for  many  reasons.    An  agreement  was   finally  made 


THE  C0NT1NUA710N  SCHOOL  225 

with  the  Board  of  Education  to  establish  a  day  school  for 
machine-shop  apprentices.  The  plan  was  submitted  to  the 
Central  I^bor  Council,  to  a  committee  of  manufacturers,  and 
to  the  Board  of  Education,  and  received  the  approval  of  all. 

"  The  continuation  school  for  machine-shop  apprentices  was 
opened  September  i,  1909.  It  runs  forty-eight  weeks  a  year, 
eight  hours  a  day,  for  four  and  one-half  days  a  week,  besides  two 
half  days  which  are  spent  by  the  teachers  in  visiting  the  boys 
in  the  shops,  seeing  the  conditions  under  which  they  work, 
consulting  with  the  foreman  about  their  needs,  and  getting  ideas 
and  materials  for  guidance  in  teaching.  This  is  an  essential  part 
of  their  work,  for  there  is  no  handed-down  course  of  study  as 
yet.   It  must  be  worked  out  as  they  go  along. 

"  The  students  keep  a  complete  file  of  their  work,  so  that  the 
details  of  the  course  lie  behind  them  instead  of  ahead  of  them. 
The  course  runs  through  four  years,  and  consists  of  one  hour  of 
blue-print  reading  and  free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing,  one 
hour  of  practical  mathematics,  one  hour  of  shop  science  and 
theory,  and  one  hour  for  reading,  English,  spelling,  commercial 
geography,  and  civics ;  the  last  hour  takes  the  form  of  stere- 
opticon  talks,  readings  from  industrial  history,  biography,  and 
geography,  and  discussion  of  civic  and  labor  questions. 

"There  are  about  two  hundred  students,  divided  into  nine 
groups,  according  to  proficiency.  They  come  one  half  day,  four 
hours  a  week,  and  are  paid  their  usual  wage  for  attendance  by 
their  employer,  and  are  docked  for  absence.  The  least  mature 
boys  come  on  Monday,  the  most  mature  on  Friday,  and  graded 
groups  between. 

"  The  grading  of  the  students  must  be  somewhat  elastic, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  arranging  a  program  for  the  individual 
boy  that  will  best  suit  the  convenience  of  the  manufacturer,  and 
also  owing  to  the  great  differences  in  the  mental  attainments  of 
the  boys — some  having  been  in  high  school  and  some  not  able 


2  26       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

to  repeat  the  multiplication  table  or  spell  the  names  of  the  days 
of  the  week.  This  necessitates  having  two  teachers  to  a  group 
of  twenty  or  twenty-five,  one  to  conduct  the  general  work  and 
the  other  to  give  much  individual  instruction. 

"  The  entire  cost  of  the  school  is  about  three  thousand 
dollars  a  year,  or  about  fifteen  dollars  a  pupil,  on  the  basis  of 
the  average  number  in  attendance. 

'"  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  chief  difficulty  encountered 
in  the  operation  of  public  schools  for  apprentices  is  not  in 
securing  the  interest  of  the  employers,  the  approval  of  labor 
organizations,  the  willingness  of  boys  to  come,  or  the  necessary 
funds  from  the  Board  of  Education;  the  chief  difficulty  is  in 
securing  properly  qualified  teachers  —  teachers  who  will  com- 
mand the  confidence  of  foremen  and  employers  by  their  knowl- 
edge of  shop  conditions,  who  will  secure  the  interest  of  boys  by 
their  enthusiasm  and  skill  in  instruction,  and  who  at  the  same 
time  meet  the  demands  of  school  authorities  as  to  scholarship 
and  character.  We  must  steer  clear  of  the  charlatan  on  the 
one  hand,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  school  pedant,  who  has 
knowledge  in  water-tight  compartments.  After  corresponding 
with  technical  schools  all  over  the  country  and  finding  no  suitable 
person,  I  decided  to  study  the  shop  men  of  our  own  city,  and 
found  a  man  who  had  worked  nine  years  in  the  shops  and  had 
left  to  prepare  to  be  a  teacher.  His  old  love  for  the  shop  came 
back  to  him,  and  he  had  been  for  several  years  teaching  appren- 
tices. He  had  worked  over  his  whole  scholastic  outfit  in  terms 
of  shop  practice.  He  had  studied  the  machines  to  see  the  prob- 
lems they  presented  in  mathematics,  science,  and  drawing. 
Elimination  of  waste  and  economy  of  output  was  the  guiding 
principle  of  his  investigation  and  instruction.  He  trains  his  own 
teachers,  and  now  has  three  under  way,  who  are  assisting  by 
night  or  day. 

"  The  school  operates  at  night  for  the  improvement  of  adult 


THE  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL  227 

machinists.  On  Friday  night  the  class  is  composed  of  foremen, 
thirty-two  at  present,  and  their  discussions  illuminate  all  phases 
of  shop  work. 

"  The  work  of  the  school  is  closely  applied  to  the  work  of 
the  shop.  It  is  designed  for  the  intellectual  improvement  of  the 
boys  and  to  give  them  intelligent  interest  in  what  they  do  in 
the  shop,  but  there  is  no  machine  work  in  the  school.  For  ex- 
ample, suppose  the  drill  press  is  under  consideration.  The  boys 
first  read  the  catalogue  description  (catalogues  are  supplied  in 
sets  of  twenty-five  by  the  manufacturers).  The  technical  names 
of  parts  are  noted.  Different  machines  are  compared  and  their 
respective  merits  examined.  The  scientific  principles  involved 
in  their  operation  are  described.  This  leads  naturally  to  a  study 
of  the  blue  prints,  which  are  supplied  by  the  manufacturers. 
This  is  followed  by  free-hand  drawings  of  some  parts  of  the 
machine.  In  the  discussion  the  mathematical  relations  receive 
especial  consideration.  For  instance,  the  speed  of  the  spindle 
as  determined  by  the  relation  of  the  diameters  of  the  cone  pul- 
leys is  a  problem  in  complex  fractions,  and  the  boys  for  the  first 
time  in  their  lives  discover  the  use  of  what  in  their  early  school 
days  was  a  senseless  puzzle.  An  hour's  lesson  on  complex  frac- 
tions follows,  using  an  arithmetic  first  and  then  a  prepared  sheet 
of  exercises  applied  to  the  drill  press.  These  lessons  are  prepared 
beforehand  with  great  care  by  the  teachers.  A  blue  print  of 
each  lesson,  with  the  details  to  be  worked  out  clearly  indicated, 
is  placed  in  the  hands  of  each  pupil,  so  that  there  is  no  waste 
of  time.  These  when  filled  complete  what  the  boys  call  "  dope 
sheets,"  and  are  filed  by  each  boy  in  a  large  envelope.  The 
exercises  are  arranged  in  sequence,  so  as  to  conduct  the  boys 
through  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry,  using 
only  those  parts  that  have  practical  application  in  the  shop,  with 
such  essential  principles  as  are  necessary  for  an  understanding 
of  the  shop  problem. 


2  28       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

"  The  above  description  will  apply  fairly  closely  to  two  or 
three  of  the  four  hours'  work  a  day.  The  last  hour,  as  indicated 
before,  is  recreational,  inspirational,  informational,  and  cultural. 
A  piano  is  provided,  a  stereopticon  with  hundreds  of  slides,  maps, 
and  charts,  also  sets  of  books  on  civics  and  industrial  biography, 
and  so  forth. 

"  The  employers  and  foremen  say  there  is  no  loss  in  output 
by  the  boys'  being  out  one  half  day  a  week.  They  more  than 
make  up  for  the  absence  by  their  diligence  and  zeal  when  they 
are  at  work.  When  they  start  to  school  they  are  as  a  rule  de- 
pressed, indifferent,  disgruntled.  They  look  upon  their  employer 
as  an  aristocrat,  their  foreman  as  a  slave  driver,  their  machine 
as  a  treadmill,  and  the  world  at  large  as  against  them.  Their 
faces  are  frozen  in  a  perpetual  grouch.  The  path  to  advancement 
seems  long  and  uncertain.  As  they  feci  mind  and  body  settling 
in  a  groove  they  become  rebellious  and  ready  to  quit.  The 
school  comes  as  a  new  interest  in  their  lives.  They  can  scarcely 
realize  at  first  that  anybody  cares,  but  soon  they  thaw  out  and 
a  new  light  shines  in  their  eyes.  They  see  for  the  first  time  the 
purpose  of  instruction  which  bored  them  in  school  days.  They 
have  a  motive.  They  can  put  their  knowledge  to  use.  They 
become  interested  and  intellectually  awakened.  Their  attitude 
changes  toward  their  employer,  their  foreman,  their  machine, 
the  world.  They  are  no  longer  mere  hands,  cubs,  operatives ; 
they  are  becoming  masters  of  an  honorable  craft.  As  they  are 
induced  to  go  from  one  shop  to  another  they  have  been  known 
to  make  it  a  condition  that  they  be  permitted  to  attend  the 
continuation  school. 

"  The  Board  of  Education,  and  others  in  our  city  who  have 
seen  the  effect  of  this  school  on  the  boys,  persuaded  the  Ohio 
legislature  last  spring  to  pass  a  law  authorizing  boards  of  educa- 
tion to  establish  continuation  schools,  and  requiring  the  attendance 
jn  daytime,  not  to  exceed  eight  hours  a  week,  of  all  who  go  to 


THE  CONTINUATION   SCHOOL 


229 


work  under  sixteen  years  of  age.  The  Cincinnati  Board  has 
set  aside  fifteen  thousand  dollars  to  put  this  law  into  operation 
in  the  year  191 1.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  our  experience, 
gives  us  faith  in  the  idea.  We  purpose  in  Cincinnati  to  open 
two  classes  of  continuation  schools :  one  compulsory,  for  those 
who  are  under  sixteen  ;  the  other  voluntiiry,  for  those  who  are 
apprenticed.  The  plans  are  now  ready  to  open  such  a  school 
in  salesmanship  for  girls  in  stores.^ 

"  It  seems  strange  that  all  oversight  of  children  ceases  when 
they  go  to  work,  strange  that  the  state  has  not  considered  it 
a  duty  to  look  after  their  education  at  the  critical  period  of  their 
existence.  Then,  if  ever,  they  need  moral  guidance  and  ideals 
kept  steadily  before  them.  That  is  the  time  they  feel  their  de- 
ficiencies and  need  instruction  and  direction.  Then  they  need 
to  be  taught  to  apply  what  they  know  to  a  practical  situation. 
Then  their  attitude  is  determined,  and  they  will  become  mere 
drudges,  shirks,  and  outcasts,  or  will  acquire  that  joy  in  work 
which  will  transform  their  task  into  an  interesting  vocation  and 
themselves  into  interested  and  ambitious  craftsmen.  As  I  see 
it,  we  should  not  wait  for  trade  schools  to  catch  boys  and  lead 
them  to  a  vocation.  We  must  catch  the  boys  and  girls  when 
they  go  to  work,  letting  them  get  their  skill  under  commercial 
conditions,  but  supplementing  it,  as  they  go  along,  with  the 
guidance  and  instruction  they  need  in  this  crisis  of  their  lives." 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Acting  under  the  new  state  law  relating  to  continuation 
schools,  Cleveland  has  established  fourteen  centers  for  carrying 
on  such  work. 

Under  this  law  the  city  is  permitted  to  establish  continuation 
schools,  and  to  require  the  attendance  of  all  children  who  go  to 
work  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  without  having  passed  the 

*  AH  of  these  plans  were  brought  to  fruition  during  the  fall  and  winter  of  191 1 . 


2  30       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

elementary  grades.  In  Cleveland  the  minimum  amount  of  con- 
tinuation-school work  is  fixed  at  six  hours  a  week.  This  may 
all  be  taken  in  one  day,  or  the  pupil  may  attend  two  three-hour 
sessions  held  on  different  days.  In  any  event  the  work  must 
all  be  done  between  8  a.m.  and  5  p.m. 

Boston,  Massachusetts 

The  following  quotations  from  documents  issued  from  time 
to  time  by  the  School  Committee  of  Boston,  show  the  history 
and  the  present  status  of  the  continuation-school  movement  in 
that  city. 

While  the  examples  given  are  of  commercial  rather  than  of 
industrial  education,  the  methods  employed  are  of  interest.  As 
they  differ  in  some  important  respects  from  the  Cincinnati  plan, 
they  are  noted  in  this  connection. 

The  question  of  establishing  continuation  schools,  modeled  to  some  extent 
after  the  plan  of  schools  of  that  name  which  have  been  successfully  con- 
ducted in  Europe,  and  especially  in  Germany,  has  been  under  consideration 
by  the  School  Committee  of  Boston  for  more  than  a  year.  The  object  of 
such  schools  is  to  provide  for  young  men  and  women  an  opportunity  to 
improve  their  knowledge  of  the  business  in  which  they  are  engaged,  and 
to  increase  their  industrial  efficiency.  The  schools  require  the  cooperation 
of  employers  in  permitting  their  employees  to  attend  during  working  hours 
and  without  loss  of  pay,  and  much  interest  is  being  shown  in  them  by  the 
education  committees  of  Boston's  various  trade  organizations. 

Early  in  May,  1909,  the  committee  passed  an  order  instructing  the  super- 
intendent to  invite  the  cooperation  of  merchants  and  manufacturers  in  the 
project. 

A  room  about  30  x  40  feet,  with  a  small  office  adjoining,  was  rented  at 
No.  91  Bedford  Street  (a  location  convenient  to  both  the  retail  and  whole- 
sale business  districts)  at  a  cost  of  $125  per  month,  and  was  fitted  up  with 
forty  regular  schoolroom  desks,  extra  chairs,  tables,  portable  blackboards, 
and  maps,  at  a  cost  of  about  $260.  The  only  expense  assumed  by  the  School 
Committee  has  been  the  salary  of  Mr.  Field  (director  of  evening  and  con- 
tinuation schools),  who  has  charge  of  the  work,  the  rental  of  rooms,  the 
cost  of  janitor  service,  and  the  necessary  fittings.  All  other  expenses  have 
been  borne  by  the  business  firms  interested  in  the  schools. 


THE  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL  231 

SHOE-AND-LEATIIER  SCHOOL 

It  was  decided  that  the  shoe-and-leather  industry  offered  the  most  prom- 
ising opportunity  for  the  establishment  of  the  initial  course,  and  the  directors 
of  the  New  England  Shoe  and  Leather  Association  promptly  and  cordially 
offered  the  cooperation  of  that  organization. 

The  class  began  its  sessions  on  April  5,  191  o,  meeting  in  the  above- 
named  rooms  on  Tuesday  and  Thursday  afternoons  from  3  to  5  o'clock, 
the  term  being  for  ten  consecutive  weeks. 

DRY-GOODS  SCHOOL 

On  April  11,  1910,  a  course  for  employees  in  the  dry-goods  business 
was  opened  in  the  above-named  rooms.  The  sessions  of  this  class  are  held 
on  Monday  and  Friday  afternoons  from  3  to  5  o'clock,  and  are  to  continue 
for  ten  consecutive  weeks. 

Pupils  in  shoe-and-leather  and  dry-goods  classes  are  young  men  from 
wholesale  and  retail  houses,  many  of  them  being  salesmen  who  are  pre- 
paring for  still  higher  positions,  such  as  road  salesman,  buyer,  etc. 

The  instruction  is  given  by  employers  and  experts  in  each  industry, 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Field  and  an  advisory  committee  of  prominent 
representatives  of  the  industry  in  Boston. 

preparatory-salp:smanship  school 

Two  classes  in  preparatory  salesmanship  were  also  established  at  No. 
91  Bedford  Street:  one  for  boys,  opening  on  April  12,  and  holding  its 
sessions  from  8.30  to  1 1  o'clock  a.m.  on  Tuesdays  and  Thursdays ;  and  the 
other  for  girls,  opening  on  April  13,  and  meeting  at  the  same  hours  on 
Wednesday  and  Friday  mornings,  the  term  of  both  classes  being  ten  weeks. 

Pupils  in  the  preparatory-salesmanship  classes  are  boys  and  girls  work- 
ing as  stock  clerks,  bundle  clerks,  auditors,  cashiers,  and  the  like,  in  retail 
stores.  They  are  preparing  for  promotion  to  the  position  of  salesman.  To 
these  two  classes  pupils  over  eighteen  years  of  age  are  not  admitted. 

An  advisory  committee  of  business  men  has  also  been  established  for 
these  classes.  The  instruction  is  given  principally  by  a  teacher  in  one  of 
the  public  schools,  especially  fitted  for  the  work,  and  whose  compensation 
is  assumed  by  the  various  business  houses  whose  employees  attend  the 
class.  Her  instruction  is  supplemented  by  frequent  talks  by  heads  of  de- 
partments and  other  experts  in  the  employ  of  various  dry-goods  houses. 

The  principal  feature  of  the  instruction  in  all  these  classes  is  the  practical 
talks  and  lectures,  each  one  hour  in  length,  given  by  men  who  have  built 


232       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

up  large  business  enterprises,  and  by  skilled  men  in  their  employ.  These 
lectures  are  stcnographically  reported,  and  have  been  published  to  some 
extent  in  trade  papers,  such  as  the  Boot  and  Shoe  Recorder,  Shoe  and 
Leather  Reporier,  and  American  Shoetnakiftg.  The  instruction  in  sales- 
manship is  of  a  more  elementary  character  and  is  not  reported. 

The  various  lecturers  bring  large  quantities  of  material  to  the  classes  for 
illustrating  their  talks.  This  material  includes  leathers,  shoes,  and  fabrics, 
in  all  stages  of  their  manufacture.  They  also  make  considerable  use  of  the 
blackboard. 

All  pupils  have  become  members  of  the  class  through  their  own  initiative 
or  at  the  suggestion  of  their  employers.  They  show  a  very  remarkable  in- 
terest in  these  talks,  and  frequently  spend  their  noon  hour  at  the  school 
studying  the  stenographic  reports.  Many  have  already  visited  manufactories 
to  study  processes,  and  memlx;rs  of  the  dry-goods  course  have  spent  many 
of  their  evenings  at  the  Textile  Exhibit  in  Mechanics  Building. 

The  members  of  the  classes  are  required  to  write  theses,  which  are  always 
on  file  for  the  inspection  of  their  employers.  Those  who  satisfactorily  com- 
plete a  course  will  be  granted  a  certificate  of  proficiency. 

It  has  not  been  considered  wise,  for  the  present  at  least,  to  establish  any 
age  limits  for  pupils  attending  these  classes,  except  that  no  pupils  over 
eighteen  years  of  age  are  admitted  to  the  classes  in  preparatory  salesmanship. 
The  ages  of  the  pupils  in  the  other  classes  range  from  fifteen  or  seventeen 
to  twenty-eight  or  thirty.  Some  of  the  pupils  are  extremely  well  educated, 
and  are  college  graduates,  but  the  majority  have  not  graduated  from  the 
high  school.  Each  class  is  composed  of  from  forty  to  fifty  pupils.  The  at- 
tendance averages  about  98  per  cent,  and  no  disciplinary  requirements 
are  necessary. 

A  recent  circular  shows  that  the  above-mentioned  classes  and 
also  a  new  class  in  banking  are  now  held  at  48  Boylston  Street. 

Another  circular  announces  the  organization  of  a  class  in 
hou.sehold  arts  as  follows : 

The  Boston  School  Committee  has  authorized  the  organization  of  courses 
in  household  arts  for  young  women  and  girls. 

These  classes  will  open  at  52  Tileston  Street,  Boston,  during  the  week 
of  February  12,  191 2. 

There  will  be  a  two-hour  lesson  twice  each  week. 

Employers  give  this  opportunity  to  their  help  during  working  hours 
without  loss  of  pay. 

The  instruction  will  consist  of  lessons  in  plain  cooking,  marketing,  home 


THE  CONTINUATION  SCHOOL  233 

furnishing  and  decoration,  care  of  the  home,  household  economy,  selection 
and  care  of  clothing,  personal  and  home  hygiene,  and  general  efficiency. 

An  apartment  has  been  secured  and  equipped  especially  for  this  purpose. 

Boston  is  thus  meeting  a  real  need  in  the  establishment  of  these  schools. 
They  are  schools  for  working  people,  held  during  business  hours,  in  the 
locality  of  their  employment,  affording  opportunity  for  instruction  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions.  A  maximum  number  is  served  at  a  minimum 
waste  of  time  in  travel ;  a  close  specialization  of  subjects  is  possible ;  the 
pupil  is  continually  applying  the  theory  of  the  classroom  to  practical  prob- 
lems in  the  store  of-  factory ;  and  the  instruction  satisfies  the  needs  of  the 
pupil's  greatest  and  most  vital  interest,  for  it  is  enlivening  and  dignifying 
his  daily  task.  The  youth  is  not  preparing  for  some  indefinite  job  that  he 
may  never  get ;  he  has  the  job  already,  and  he  aims  to  increase  his  efficiency 
in  that  position.  He  is  not  accumulating  knowledge  that  will  be  forgotten 
before  he  has  a  chance  to  apply  it ;  he  is  learning  the  meaning  of  problems 
and  conditions  which  are  being  worked  out  about  him  on  a  commercial 
basis  day  by  day.  He  sees  the  relation  of  his  duties  to  the  industry  as  a 
whole,  and  he  finds  in  the  school  an  avenue  of  self-expression  where  he 
feels  that  he  can  show  his  ability. 

COURSES  OF  STUDY 

Shoic-and-Leather  School 

The  production  and  distribution  of  leather ;  tanning  process ;  leather 
manufacture ;  recognition  of  kinds,  grades,  and  comparative  values  of 
leather ;  manufacture  and  classification  of  shoes ;  salesmanship ;  efficiency 
training ;  visits  to  industrial  plants. 

Drv-Gooixs  School 
Fibers ;  cotton  and  cotton  goods ;  wool,  worsteds,  and  woolens ;  silk 
and  silk  fabrics ;  linen  and  linen  fabrics ;  recognition  and  comparison  of 
mixed  fabrics  ;  simple  tests  for  determining  quality  ;  coloring  materials  and 
color  preservation  ;  shrinking ;  mercerization ;  noninflammable  fabrics ;  care 
of  stock ;  commercial  arithmetic ;  commercial  geography ;  commercial  cor- 
respondence ;  salesmanship ;  efficiency  training. 

Pkefaratokv-Salesmanship  School 

Commercial  correspondence ;  facility  in  oral  and  written  expression ; 
store  arithmetic ;  sales-slip  practice  ;  sources  of  merchandise  and  its  distri- 
bution ;  raw  materials  ;  textiles ;  penmanship ;  color  and  design  ;  hygiene ; 
practical  talks  on  the  fundamental  principles  of  success ;  salesmanship. 


234       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Banking  School 

Brief  history  of  banking ;  different  classes  of  banks  and  their  relation  to 
each  other ;  department  work ;  correspondence ;  notes,  —  usury,  protest, 
discount ;  currency ;  foreign  monetary  systems ;  circulation  ;  credit ;  clear- 
ing houses ;  stocks  and  bonds ;  brokers ;  the  Stock  Exchange ;  foreign  and 
domestic  exchange ;  funds  and  funding  systems ;  efficiency  training. 

The  length  of  the  courses  at  the  present  time  is  fifteen  weeks,  and  two 
courses  are  given  each  year.  The  first  opens  early  in  October  and  the  second 
in  the  middle  of  February. 

Pupils  from  retail  stores  usually  have  their  sessions  in  the  morning  from 
8.30  to  1 1 .00  o'clock ;  pupils  from  the  wholesale  stores  usually  have  their 
sessions  in  the  afternoon  from  3.30  to  5.30  o'clock. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE 

Vocational  guidance  will,  of  necessity,  follow  closely  upon  the 
introduction  of  vocational  education,  and  the  ultimate  success  of 
either  one  will  depend  in  no  small  degree  upon  the  ability  of 
the  school  system  to  furnish  some  measure  of  the  other. 

The  first  school  system  in  the  country  to  attempt  to  fulfill  this 
new  function  of  education,  at  least  in  a  systematic  way,  was  that 
of  Boston.  At  the  First  National  Conference  on  Vocational 
Guidance,  held  in  Boston,  November,  19 lO,  Mr.  Stratton  D. 
Brooks,  then  superintendent  of  public  schools,  described  the 
purpose  and  the  methods  of  the  work  thus  far  accomplished. 
The  complete  paper  is  given  below. 

The  Vocation  Bureau  to  which  Mr.  Brooks  refers  was  founded 
by  Mrs.  Quincy  A.  Shaw  in  January,  1908,  on  plans  drawn  up 
by  the  late  Dr.  Frank  Parsons.  Dr.  Parsons's  book  "  Choosing  a 
Vocation,"  and  a  volume  by  Meyer  Bloomfield,  the  present  direc- 
tor of  the  bureau,  entitled  "  The  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth," 
will  be  found  of  great  value  to  students  of  this  new  movement. 

Referring  again  to  the  fact  that  this  work  was  made  possible 
by  the  generosity  of  Mrs.  Shaw,  one  must  recall  the  active  part 
taken  by  this  wise  philanthropist  in  the  establishment  of  the 
kindergartens  in  the  United  States,  and  her  later  support  of  the 
sloyd  movement,  which  so  profoundly  modified  manual  training 
throughout  the  country.  It  seems  probable  that  this  latest  ad- 
dition to  the  duties  of  the  schools  will  ultimately  produce  as  rad- 
ical modifications  in  their  methods  and  ideals  as  have  resulted 
from  the  introduction  of  the  kindergarten  and  manual  training. 

235 


236       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Vocational  Guidance^ 

By  Stratton  D.  Brooks 

Formerly  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Boston,  Massachusetts 

At  the  outset  I  wish  to  distinguish  between  vocational  place- 
ment and  vocational  guidance.  By  vocational  placement  I  mean 
fitting  a  job  to  the  attainments  that  a  boy  now  has.  By  voca- 
tional guidance  I  mean  fitting  a  boy  to  a  job  that  he  will  at  some 
future  time  be  able  to  fill,  if  he  follows  the  course  of  instruction 
outlined  by  his  vocational  adviser.  Vocational  placement  finds 
a  job  now  better  fitted  to  the  boy's  present  attainments  than  he 
would  otherwise  be  likely  to  find.  Vocational  guidance  fits  the 
boy  for  a  better  job  in  the  future  by  training  him  along  the 
lines  of  his  greatest  aptitudes  and  opportunities.  Both  consider 
the  boy's  abilities :  one  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  best  pos- 
sible present  use  of  them  ;  the  other  with  a  view  to  giving  them 
additional  development,  in  order  to  secure  in  the  future  a  still 
greater  use  of  them.  It  is  this  latter  phase  of  vocational  guidance 
that  is  discussed  here. 

Educational  methods  and  educational  machinery  are  being 
overhauled  in  the  light  of  a  new  purpose,  namely,  the  more 
specific  preparation  of  pupils  for  particular  vocations  in  life. 
The  most  important  immediate  effect  of  the  movement  for  in- 
dustrial education  has  been  to  move  forward  suddenly  the  time 
of  choice,  and  it  is  this  necessity  to  choose  early  a  definite  career 
that  renders  desirable  a  consideration  of  vocational  direction. 

The  schools  of  the  past  have  presented  the  same  type  of  edu- 
cation for  all  pupils,  and  vocational  direction  consisted  mainly 
in  advising  a  boy  to  take  or  not  to  take  additional  education. 
But  under  the  new  conditions,  vocational  direction  will  not  only 
be  concerned  with  advising  a  boy  to  take  additional  education 

1  Read  at  the  First  National  Conference  on  Vocational  Guidance,  Boston, 
November,  1910. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  237 

but  with  deciding  what  particular  kind  of  additional  education 
he  should  take  in  order  to  be  of  greatest  service  to  himself  and 
to  the  community. 

Formerly  a  teacher  might,  with  a  clear  conscience,  advise  a 
boy  to  take  a  high-school  course,  or  go  to  college  even,  to  prepare 
for  medicine  or  law,  for  the  education  offered  in  high  school  or 
college  was  so  general  in  character  and  so  wide  of  application 
that,  whatever  the  boy's  future  vocation,  he  was  almost  sure  to 
succeed  better  in  it  because  of  his  extended  training.  Further- 
more, the  final  entry  into  the  medical  school  or  the  law  school 
came  at  so  late  a  date  that  any  change  of  interest  or  error  in  the 
estimate  of  the  boy's  ability  had  time  to  show  itself.  But  he 
who  in  these  days  of  special  education  advises  a  boy  to  enter 
some  particular  trade,  and  selects  for  him  a  course  of  study 
restricted  to  the  practical  elements  of  that  trade,  may  not  give 
advice  lightly,  for  the  possibilities  of  error  are  increased  a  hun- 
dredfold, while  the  possibilities  of  correcting  an  error,  if  made, 
are  almost  nonexistent. 

The  new  element  in  the  situation,  and  the  one  that  causes  the 
chief  difficulty,  because  of  the  establishment  of  specific  indus- 
trial schools,  is  that  the  avowed  purpose  of  industrial  education 
is  to  prepare  for  a  specific  end,  and  in  order  to  be  valuable  and 
effective  to  that  end  it  must  be  restrictive  in  nature.  Cultural 
education  is  criticized  because,  though  good,  it  is  not  good  for 
anything  particular,  while  industrial  education  is  praised  be- 
cause it  is  not  only  good,  but  good  for  something.  When  con- 
sidered from  the  point  of  view  of  vocational  advice,  however, 
the  chief  trouble  is  that  industrial  education,  though  good  for 
something,  is  only  good  for  some  07ie  thing ;  and  in  proportion 
as  it  succeeds,  it  limits,  for  the  boy  or  girl  who  receives  it,  the 
possibility  of  success  in  any  other  line  of  endeavor.  He  who 
enters  upon  a  successful  industrial  training,  especially  of  the 
lower  and  more  specific  type,  becomes  by  that  very  education 


238       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

less  fitted  for  entrance  upon  a  different  work.  In  case  events 
show  that  the  boy  is  not  qualified  for  the  work  selected,  there 
is  little  opportunity  to  correct  the  error.  To  advise  a  boy  to 
take  up  a  restrictive  educational  course  is  a  matter  requiring 
much  graver  consideration  than  to  advise  him  to  take  a  non- 
restrictive  course  ;  and  vocational  direction,  therefore,  attains  an 
importance  that  it  has  not  hitherto  had. 

The  chief  motto  of  vocational  direction  in  the  past  has  been, 
"Aim  at  the  highest."  There  are  those  who  call  our  present 
educational  system  a  failure,  on  the  ground  that  we  have  at- 
tempted to  educate  every  boy  to  become  a  president  of  the 
United  States.  But  the  man  who  should  seriously  criticize  the 
school  for  stating  as  its  aim  the  education  of  presidents  would 
fail  to  recognize  that  the  statement  is  but  the  embodiment  of 
the  general  principle  that  every  boy  shall  have  the  incentive  and 
the  opportunity  to  reach  the  highest  development  of  which  he  is 
capable.  It  will  be  unfortunate  indeed  when  American  education 
ceases  to  encourage  every  one  to  take  active  part  in  democratic 
citizenship,  and  to  feel  honored  by  the  opportunity  to  render 
public  service.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  intellectual  superi- 
ority has  received  greater  recognition  in  the  schools  than  mechani- 
cal skill ;  but  it  is  also  true  that  the  same  difference  has  existed 
in  the  world  at  large,  and  that  it  will  probably  continue  to  exist. 

To-day  we  face  a  new  situation.  The  demand  for  more  skill- 
ful workmen  is  upon  us,  and  the  people  are  asking  the  schools 
to  solve  the  question.  What  I  want  to  keep  clearly  in  mind, 
however,  is  that  this  ought  not  to  be  a  demand  for  a  substitute 
education  but  for  a  siipplementary  education  ;  that  the  error  of 
the  school  in  the  past  in  pointing  every  pupil  toward  academic 
callings  would  be  repeated  in  even  a  worse  way  if  it  should 
now  attempt  to  place  every  boy  in  a  mechanical  trade. 

There  is  less  danger  to  society  from  men  who  have  aimed 
high  and  failed  because  of  their  own  lack  of  ability,  than  there  is 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  239 

from  able  and  ambitious  men  who  writhe  under  an  apparently 
unjust  discrimination  of  society  that  gives  greater  rewards  to 
other  men  naturally  no  more  richly  endowed. 

But  whether  we  favor  or  disapprove,  it  seems  evident  that 
industrial  education  will  go  forward,  and  that  in  the  larger 
cities,  at  least,  separate  schools  will  undoubtedly  be  established, 
wherein  each  class  of  pupils  may  receive  whatever  type  of  ele- 
mentary industrial  instruction  the  combined  wisdom  of  the  citi- 
zens, the  school  committee,  and  the  teachers  determine  to  be 
best  suited  to  the  purpose  in  hand.  The  introduction  of  sepa- 
rate schools  will  bring  upon  the  American  people  a  new  and 
serious  problem,  namely,  the  necessity  of  an  early  choice  of  a 
vocation.  Reliable  information  and  competent  advice  'must  be 
furnished,  both  to  children  and  to  adults,  showing  what  voca- 
tions are  open  to  children,  what  conditions  prevail  in  each,  and 
what  the  rewards  of  success  may  be. 

In  view  of  these  needs,  we  have  been  endeavoring  in  Boston 
to  establish  vocational  direction  on  a  satisfactory  foundation. 
I  wish  to  state  briefly  what  has  been  attempted. 

Boston  is  fortunate  in  having  a  group  of  liberal-minded  men 
and  women  through  whose  generosity  the  Vocation  Bureau  has 
been  established  and  maintained.  The  Boston  School  Com- 
mittee has  invited  the  cooperation  of  the  Vocation  Bureau,  and 
the  director  of  this  bureau  has  worked  hand  in  hand  with  the 
Vocation  Direction  Committee  of  the  Public  Schools  —  a  com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  superintendent  and  consisting  of  mas- 
ters and  submasters  in  the  Boston  schools.  Among  the  many 
activities  of  the  Vocation  Bureau,  I  mention  three :  first,  the 
investigation  of  conditions  in  the  trades  and  businesses  of 
Boston.  The  bureau  has  undertaken  to  prepare  material  for  the 
use  of  pupils,  parents,  and  vocational  counselors,  that  will  fur- 
nish the  best  available  information  with  reference  to  the  voca- 
tional opportunities  that  exist  in  Boston.    Second,  the  Vocation 


240       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Bureau  is  conducting  in  one  of  the  public-school  buildings  a 
school  for  vocational  counselors,  wherein  teachers  and  others 
who  are  interested  in  this  important  work  may  prepare  them- 
selves for  the  better  performance  of  their  important  tasks. 
Third,  the  Vocation  Bureau  has  brought  about  a  cooperation 
of  effort  whereby  various  organizations  have  undertaken  to  per- 
form needed  services  without  duplication  of  effort. 

An  important  part  of  the  question  of  vocational  selection  is 
the  amount  of  interest  and  attention  that  parents  must  give. 
To  this  problem  of  arousing  an  interest  in  parents,  the  School 
and  Home  Association  has  agreed  to  devote  especial  attention. 
By  means  of  discussions  before  the  Parents'  Associations,  of 
which  it  is  composed,  this  society  will  be  able  to  do  much  to 
create  a  widespread  and  intelligent  interest  in  the  problem. 

It  is  necessary  also  that  accurate  information  be  gathered 
with  reference  to  the  specific  instruction  offered  in  day  and 
evening  schools,  both  public  and  private.  The  Women's  Mu- 
nicipal League  has  undertaken  to  collect  this  information  and  to 
set  it  forth  definitely  and  concisely  in  the  form  of  printed 
charts. 

To  the  work  of  giving  vocational  advice  to  girls  who  have 
left  school,  the  Girls'  Trade  Education  League  will  give  special 
attention. 

In  the  schools  themselves  many  things  have  been  done  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  Committee  on  Vocational  Direction,  cl;iief 
among  which  is  the  appointment  in  each  high  school  and  ele- 
mentary school  of  one  or  more  vocational  counselors.  These 
counselors  have  been  selected  by  the  principals  with  reference 
to  their  interest  in  the  work  of  vocational  direction,  their  skill 
in  determining  the  abilities  and  possibilities  of  the  children,  and 
their  willingness  to  devote  extra  time  to  acquiring  information 
and  perfecting  themselves  for  the  successful  performance  of  their 
duties.    Meetings  of  these  counselors  have  been  held  for  the 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE 


241 


purpose  of  discussing  the  problems  of  vocational  direction  and 
considering  how  best  to  minimize  its  dangers  and  increase  its 
beneficial  results.  Most  of  them  are  now  taking  a  course  of 
instruction  arranged  by  the  Vocation  Bureau,  wherein  they  may 
be  even  more  efficiently  prepared  for  the  work  of  directing 
pupils  wisely.  As  an  illustration  of  the  work  of  these  vocational 
counselors  the  following  will  serve  : 

Last  June  twice  as  many  elementary-school  graduates  as  could 
be  admitted  elected  the  High  School  of  Commerce  and  the 
High  School  of  Practical  Arts.  Hitherto  when  similar  con- 
ditions have  arisen  it  has  been  necessary  to  choose  the  half  that 
could  be  admitted  either  by  lot  or  on  the  basis  of  scholarship. 
This  year  the  existence  of  the  vocational  counselors  rendered 
possible  a  different  and  a  better  procedure.  The  principal  of 
each  elementary  school  was  sent  a  list  of  the  boys  in  his  school 
who  had  applied  for  admission  to  the  High  School  of  Com- 
merce, with  the  statement  that  only  half  could  be  admitted. 
The  request  was  made  that  the  vocational  counselor  of  the  school 
select  that  half.  The  principal  of  the  High  School  of  Com- 
merce met  the  vocational  counselors,  explained  the  special  work 
done  in  that  school,  and  outlined  the  qualities  that  a  boy  must 
possess  in  order  to  succeed  therein.  The  vocational  counselors 
then  approached  the  question  of  choosing  the  boys  to  be  ad- 
mitted, having  on  the  one  hand  some  knowledge  of  the  special 
qualities  needed  in  that  particular  school,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  knowledge  of  the  tastes  and  aptitudes  of  the  boy  as  shown  by 
his  work  in  the  elementary  school.  The  boys  chosen  by  the 
vocational  counselors  were  then  admitted.  A  similar  course 
was  pursued  with  girls  for  the  High  School  of  Practical  Arts, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  this  process  of  selection  has  brought  into 
these  schools  a  higher  percentage  of  pupils  fitted  to  do  the  work 
therein  than  could  have  been  secured  by  either  of  the  methods 
previously  pursued. 


242        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Somewhat  different  and  less  difficult  than  the  problem  of 
selecting  a  school  is  the  work  done  in  specific  vocational  schools, 
as  illustrated  in  the  High  School  of  Commerce  and  the  Trade 
School  for  Girls. 

Since  the  High  School  of  Commerce  was  organized  in  1906 
systematic  instruction  has  been  given  with  reference  to  existing 
business  opportunities  and  the  possibilities  of  each.  Carefully 
prepared  courses  of  lectures,  based  on  accurate  investigations  of 
conditions  in  Boston  and  elsewhere,  have  been  presented  each 
year.  The  whole  atmosphere  of  the  school  has  been  permeated 
with  the  idea  of  choosing  wisely  some  particular  business.  The 
purpose  of  the  school  is  not  only  to  fit  the  boy  for  a  commercial 
career,  but  to  find  that  particular  commercial  career  in  which  he 
gives  promise  of  the  greatest  progress.  In  order  to  assist  in  the 
process  of  fitting  each  boy  to  his  business,  a  system  of  summer 
apprenticeship  has  been  established.  Prior  to  the  summer  vacation 
in  1909,  and  again  in  19 10,  the  School  Committee  appointed  a 
man  to  have  charge  of  the  work  of  finding  employment  for  the 
high-school  boys  during  the  summer  in  the  business  houses  of 
the  city.  The  business  men  have  cooperated  heartily  in  the  plan. 
They  agree  to  give  the  boys  the  best  possible  chance  to  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  the  business  and  demonstrate  their  own  fitness  or 
unfitness  for  it.  In  particular,  they  agree  not  to  hire  the  boy 
after  school  opens  in  September,  even  though  he  has  shown 
special  aptitude  for  the  work  in  hand.  By  this  means  the  busi- 
ness men  have  a  sympathetic  understanding  of  the  aims  of  the 
school,  the  school  appreciates  more  thoroughly  the  demands  made 
upon  the  boys  who  enter  business,  and  the  boys  obtain  some 
insight  into  the  relation  of  their  school  tasks  to  their  life  work. 

In  the  Trade  School  for  Girls  provision  is  made  for  a  voca- 
tional assistant  for  each  hundred  girls.  The  school  teaches  cer- 
tain trades,  and  the  vocational  assistant  is  charged  with  the  duty 
of  investigating  conditions  existing  in  these  trades,  in  order  to 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  243 

enable  the  school  to  adapt  its  course  to  the  exact  needs  of  busi- 
ness, and  to  provide  accurate  and  up-to-date  information  available 
for  use  of  parents  and  pupils. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  vocational  assistant  to  secure  positions 
for  graduates,  and  in  this  sense  she  conducts  an  employment 
bureau,  but  with  the  important  difference  that  she  knows  both 
the  conditions  in  the  trade  and  the  qualifications  of  the  par- 
ticular girls,  and  therefore  endeavors  not  merely  to  find  a  place 
for  the  girl,  but  a  place  where  she  will  succeed.  The  work  of  the 
vocational  assistant,  however,  but  begins  with  finding  a  place  for 
the  girl.  It  is  success  that  counts,  and  the  vocational  assistant 
is  to  keep  track  of  her  girls,  know  which  ones  succeed,  and,  more 
especially,  which  ones  fail,  and  why  they  fail ;  she  is  to  find 
for  those  who  fail  other  places  better  suited  to  their  abilities,  or 
perchance  advise  them  to  return  to  school  until  they  reach  a 
degree  of  proficiency  that  will  enable  them  to  retain  a  position 
once  obtained. 

On  the  moral  side,  also,  the  vocational  assistant  will  have 
great  effect.  Before  the  girl  leaves  school  it  is  hoped  that  such 
a  mutual  relation  of  confidence  and  friendship  will  be  established 
that  any  girl  who  finds  herself  at  work  in  a  shop  or  factory  where 
conditions  are  improper  will  report  promptly  to  the  vocational 
assistant,  with  the  result  that  the  girl  will  be  placed  in  another 
position,  and  that  no  more  girls  will  be  sent  to  the  shop  or 
factory  complained  of  until  conditions  are  improved.  When, 
perchance,  a  girl  is  placed  in  a  position  in  which  she  cannot 
advance,  or  from  which  she  is  discharged,  the  vocational  assistant 
should  be  on  hand  to  encourage  and  assist,  to  tide  the  girl  over 
the  immediate  difficulty,  and  to  find  for  her  some  other  work 
wherein  there  is  prospect  of  earning  a  living  wage  and  of  meet- 
ing a  greater  measure  of  success. 

In  both  of  these  schools  it  will  be  observed  that  the  prob- 
lem is  that  of  selecting  a  particular  business  or  trade  within  a 


244        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

comparatively  limited  range  from  which  the  pupil,  by  entering 
the  school,  has  elected  to  choose.  Much  broader  and  far  more 
difficult  is  the  task  of  selecting  the  particular  school  to  which  a 
boy  or  girl  should  go,  or  of  deciding  on  the  specific  calling  that 
he  should  enter  on  leaving  a  school  that  has  given  him  only  a 
very  general  preparation.  It  is  in  this  field  that  vocational  direc- 
tion will  be  most  necessary  and  should  ultimately  succeed  in 
reaching  its  greatest  usefulness. 

To  secure  information  that  is  accurate  is  comparatively  easy, 
but  to  give  advice  that  is  wise  with  reference  to  selecting  a  life 
calling  is  most  difficult.  He  who  gives  advice  must  know  not 
only  the  relative  advantages  of  the  different  trades,  businesses, 
and  professions,  but  also  the  specific  requirements  for  success 
in  each.  To  determine  what  callings  give  greatest  financial  re- 
turns, and  to  advise  all  pupils  to  seek  those  callings,  would  be  to 
ignore  the  element  that  will  make  advice  valuable,  namely,  the 
careful  consideration  of  the  tastes,  tendencies,  and  abilities  of 
the  pupils,  in  order  that  each  may  be  advised  to  select  a  calling 
in  which  the  requirements  for  success  are  such  that  he  may 
have  reasonable  expectation  of  meeting  them.  The  vocational 
adviser  must  know  business,  to  be  sure,  but  he  has  much  greater 
need  to  know  boys. 

It  is  evident  that  a  vast  amount  of  scientific  investigation 
must  be  made  before  any  form  of  vocational  advice  can  have  any 
substantial  and  reliable  scientific  foundation.  Outside  of  such 
elements  as  courtesy,  tact,  perseverance,  courage,  honesty,  and 
the  like,  the  factors  that  are  really  essential  in  any  single  busi- 
ness are  as  yet  undetermined.  The  extent  to  which  success  in 
each  .calling  depends  upon  the  strength  or  accuracy  of  muscular 
reaction,  upon  the  pertinacity  and  rapidity  of  mental  associations, 
or  upon  any  one  of  a  dozen  other  lines  of  mental  and  motor 
activity,  still  awaits  solution  in  the  laboratory  of  the  experimental 
psychologist.     More  difficult  still  is  the  determination  of  the 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  245 

exact  qualifications  of  each  particular  boy ;  impossible,  in  fact, 
under  any  system  of  investigation  that  now  exists  or  is  likely  to 
exist  under  conditions  that  will  be  readily  applicable  to  thousands 
of  children  annually.  When  to  these  difficulties  is  added  that 
of  determining  now,  with  a  boy  in  the  adolescent  period  of  rapid 
and  turbulent  change,  what  will  be  his  dominant,  permanent 
characteristics  when  he  has  reached  manhood,  it  becomes  clear 
that  even  under  the  most  careful  guidance  the  giving  of  voca- 
tional advice  must  still  remain  in  the  realm  of  the  uncertain  and 
problematical. 

To  give  advice  as  to  selection  of  a  life  work  must  remain  for 
the  most  part  an  appreciative  art  rather  than  an  exact  science. 
It  will  depend  upon  those  attitudes  of  mind  that  are  appreciative 
and  interpretative,  rather  than  upon  those  which  are  analytical 
and  scientific.  Both  the  parent  and  the  expert  vocational  adviser 
are  likely  to  be  in  error ;  the  parent  because  he  is  too  near  the 
life  of  the  boy,  knows  him  too  intimately,  loves  him  too  well, 
and  is  too  strongly  prejudiced  in  his  favor  and  too  prone  to 
exaggerate  both  his  minor  faults  and  his  minor  virtues,  to  en- 
able him  to  judge  with  all  wisdom  as  to  the  present  condition 
or  future  promise  of  his  child  ;  the  psychological  expert,  because 
he  is  too  far  from  the  child,  too  unacquainted  with  his  attitudes 
of  mind,  his  reactions  under  the  stress  and  irritations  of  life 
conditions,  too  remote  to  receive  the  shy  confidences  of  a  fleet- 
ing moment  when  the  child  lifts  but  for  a  second  the  veil  that 
covers  many  latent  possibilities.  Between  the  parent  and  the 
expert  adviser,  however,  is  the  teacher,  who  possesses  or  should 
possess  some  of  the  characteristics  of  each.  I  do  not  mean  that 
there  is  little  use  for  expert  vocational  advice,  but  merely  to  em- 
phasize that  its  greatest  work  must  be  done  by  utilizing  as  its 
agents  those  who  now  furnish,  and  who  will  continue  to  furnish, 
ideals,  incentives,  and  directions  to  a  majority  of  all  the  pupils 
in  school. 


246       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Plan  of  the  Ckntkal  High  School 
Grand  Rapids,  Michigan 

Unquestionably  the  widening  of  educational  opportunities  has 
forced  upon  principals  and  teachers  generally  the  necessity  of 
guiding  their  pupils  to  make  a  wise  selection  among  the  schools 
and  courses  of  study  which  offer  such  a  variety  of  possibilities. 
In  individual  instances  counsel  has  been  given  with  full  recog- 
nition of  the  value  of  vocational  motive,  but  in  few  schools  has 
any  effort  been  made  to  reduce  this  counseling  to  a  system  or 
to  develop  it  as  an  art. 

Principal  Jesse  B.  Davis,  of  the  Central  High  School,  Grand 
Rapids,  Michigan,  has  developed  in  his  school  a  plan  based  on 
the  conception  that  vocational  vision  can  be  created  and  de- 
veloped by  education,  and  that  this  particular  kind  of  education 
the  schools  should  give.  The  plan  was  fully  set  forth  in  a  paper  ^ 
read  by  Mr.  Davis  in  191 1.  In  it  he  discussed  the  need  for  vo- 
cational education  and  vocational  guidance,  and  made  excellent 
suggestions  relating  to  possible  guidance  below  the  high  school, 
emphasizing,  it  is  true,  the  need  of  giving  information  about 
vocational  life,  rather  than  the  need  of  developing  appreciation 
of  it  through  actual  contact  with  its  elements.  The  complete 
plan  for  the  high  school  follows. 

A  STUDY  OF  CONDITIONS 

In  talking  with  the  pupils  about  to  enter  the  high  school  from  year  to 
year,  I  have  found  that  it  is  a  rare  thing  for  pupils  to  have  any  definite  idea 
of  a  plan  for  their  future.  They  have  great  difficulty  in  choosing  a  course 
of  study  in  the  high  school.  The  choices  made  are  often  influenced  by  the 
merest  whims,  by  parents'  or  teachers'  hobbies,  by  companions'  choices,  or 
by  hearsay  evidence  that  certain  subjects  are  hard  or  easy.  After  entering 
the  high  school  many  pupils  have  come  to  the  office  to  obtain  permission 
to  drop  a  certain  study,  because  they  have  found  it  to  be  something  different 

1  The  paper  will  be  found  in  full  in  the  proceedings  of  the  191 1  meeting  of 
the  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools.  The  de- 
scriptive portions  only  are  here  given. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  247 

from  what  they  thought  it  was  when  they  decided  to  take  it.  An  elective 
system  gives  rise  to  much  harmful  changing  about  by  students  who  have 
no  aim  in  their  study.  I  have  also  found  that  students  will  decide  the  ques- 
tion of  going  to  college  or  into  business  with  just  about  as  much  judgment 
as  they  use  in  electing  courses  upon  entering  the  ninth  grade.  But  few  of 
them  are  serious-minded  enough  to  consider  carefully  the  kind  of  work  that 
they  should  take  up  in  college. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  more  definite  idea  of  the  actual  situation  in  the  high 
school  itself,  I  made  a  special  study  of  531  cases.  These  boys  were  asked 
to  answer  a  number  of  questions  as  honesdy  and  as  carefully  as  they  pos- 
sibly could.  I  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  results  obtained  are  as 
accurate  as  is  the  judgment  of  the  average  high-school  boy.  Of  the  531 
boys  in  all  grades  of  the  high  school,  240  had  decided  upon  some  vocation. 
From  the  291  who  had  not  arrived  at  any  decision  in  the  matter,  194  had 
tried  to  do  so,  while  97  boys  had  made  no  effort  at  all;  235  of  these  said 
that  they  would  like  to  have  advice  on  the  subject,  leaving  56  who  were 
apparently  indifferent  to  the  question.  A  further  study  of  the  240  who  had 
made  a  decision  gave  still  more  interesting  data.  In  asking  them  how  they 
came  to  make  this  decision,  and  by  whom  they  were  influenced  in  making 
the  choice,  I  found  that  105  cases  were  practically  settled  by  parents;  so 
far  the  teachers  had  influenced  only  26,  companions  had  led  33  to  do  as 
they  were  going  to  do,  59  had  chosen  a  certain  vocation  because  some  rel- 
ative or  friend  in  the  occupation  had  made  it  attractive  for  them,  and  23 
boys  had  arrived  at  their  conclusion  without  the  aid  of  any  one.  This 
proved  that  the  parents  were  the  dominating  factors,  that  the  teachers  were 
not  making  full  use  of  their  opportunity,  and  that  many  pupils  were  making 
life  decisions  without  any  proper  guidance  or  influence.  I  asked  what  knowl- 
edge they  had  of  the  vocation  they  had  chosen,  and  found  that  47  of  them 
had  worked  during  vacations  or  at  other  times  in  the  occupation  they  had 
decided  upon ;  34  knew  something  about  the  vocation  because  their  parents 
and  relatives  were  in  it ;  36  had  spent  some  time  reading  and  studying  about 
their  choice ;  and  1 23  confessed  that  they  had  no  real  knowledge  of  the 
vocation  that  they  had  determined  to  enter.  Of  the  240  I  found  that  150 
were  choosing  their  studies  in  accordance  with  a  plan  to  prepare  for  their 
life  work,  and  that  90  were  still  drifting  along  without  any  idea  of  how 
they  might  best  realize  their  ambition.  I  asked  what  purpose  they  had  in 
mind  in  choosing  a  particular  vocation.  One  answered  f or  "  service  " ;  19 
were  after  "money";  85  merely  "  preferred  "  or  "  liked  "  that  one  best; 
39  really  thought  they  were  better  "fitted"  for  it  than  anything  else;  19 
wished  to  enter  the  same  work  with  their  parents;  and  "]"]  could  think  of' 
no  purpose  in  particular  except  to  make  a  living. 


248       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

A  study  of  choices  that  were  made  by  the  240  boys  gave  evidence  of  a 
rather  narrow  vision  of  the  world's  work,  only  30  different  vocations  being 
named.  About  one  third  of  all  the  boys  were  going  to  be  engineers  of  some 
kind,  22  were  looking  toward  the  law,  12  had  decided  to  take  up  farming; 
of  course  there  were  a  number  in  (irand  Rapids  who  were  interested  in 
manufacturing,  but  the  others  were  scattered  among  the  most  familiar 
occupations.  Most  teachers  of  mathematics  would  agree  that  of  the  73  who 
had  chosen  engineering,  a  good  number  could  be  wisely  guided  into  different 
lines  by  an  investigation  of  their  ability  in  that  subject. 

Altogether  the  investigation  gave  much  evidence  of  a  need  of  lietter 
guidance,  and  this  evidence,  together  with  the  knowledge  that  the  pupils 
who  have  a  definite  aim  actually  do  a  much  higher  grade  of  work  than  those 
who  are  drifting  along  the  path  of  least  resistance,  led  us  to  determine  on 
a  scheme  of  guidance  which  we  have  now  learned  to  call  "vocational." 

From  my  investigation  of  the  influences  that  determine  the  choice  of  the 
high-school  boy,  I  realize  the  need  of  instructin'g  the  parents  as  well  as 
the  pupils.  Nearly  all  of  our  grammar  schools  have  organized  parents' 
clubs.  The  progress  of  the  movement  to  make  the  schoolhouse  a  social 
center  is  also  opening  the  way  for  splendid  opportunides  to  educate  the 
parents  in  the  art  of  wise  guidance,  and  is  bound  to  promote  a  more  health- 
ful cooperation  between  parent  and  teacher.  We  have  published  a  little 
pamphlet  addressed  to  the  parents  of  the  eighth-grade  pupils  in  regard  to 
the  advantages  of  a  high-school  education,  and  as  a  guide  in  choosing 
studies  upon  entering  the  high  school.  Other  pamphlets  are  in  process  of 
preparation.  These  will  be  on  vocational  topics,  and  largely  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  cannot  go  on  immediately  with  their  education,  but  who  must 
find  some  kind  of  employment. 

GUIDANCE  IN  THE  HIGH  .SCHOOL 

Vocational  guidance  is,  or  should  be,  a  process  of  drawing  out  from  a 
pupil  a  knowledge  of  himself,  of  opening  his  eyes  to  see  the  wide  field  of 
opportunity  that  is  before  him,  and  of  developing  in  him  the  elements  of 
character  that  make  for  a  successful  life.  It  is  then  a  problem  of  self-de- 
velopment and  not  a  matter  of  mere  information  or  of  the  giving  of  advice. 
Following  out  this  theory,  we  have  selected  in  the  high  school  the  depart- 
ment of  English  for  the  purpose  of  experiment.  In  this  subject  we  reach 
every  pupil,  and  at  the  same  time  offer  the  students  subjects  for  composidon 
that  are  of  real  interest  to  them  and  about  which  they  have  some  ideas  of 
their  own.  The  aim  of  the  arrangement  of  themes  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  scheme: 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  249 

Ninth  grade ^  first  semester.  Autobiographical  themes. 

I.  The  family.    2.  My  health.    3.  The  record  of  a  day.    4.  My  habits. 

5.  My  likes  and  dislikes.    6.  The  most  important  event  in  my  life.    7.  My 
ambition.    8.  My  church.   9.  A  self-estimate. 

Ninth  grade,  second  setnester.  Biography. 

I.  (Franklin,  etc.)  at  my  age.    2.  How  (Edison)  succeeded.    3.  My  op- 
portunities compared  with  those  of  (Lincoln).    4.  Have  I  some  qualities 
found  in  (great  men).'' 
Tenth  grade,  first  semester.   The  world's  work. 

I.  The  kind  of  employment  that  I  can  get  now.   2.  Child  labor.  3.  Wages 
of  those  leaving  school  at  the  eighth  grade  compared  with  high-school 
graduates.    4.   Different  vocations  selected  and  assigned  by  the  teacher. 
Tenth  grade,  second  setnester.  My  vocation. 

I.  Why  I   have  chosen  my  vocation.     2.  Interview  with  a  successful 
man  or  woman  in  the  vocation.    3.  Plan  for  entering  this  vocation. 
ElcTenth  grade,  first  sentester.  Elements  0/  success  (character). 

I.  What  are  business  habits?  2.  Character  ts.  reputation.  3.  The  ef- 
fect of  overcoming  bad  habits.  4.  The  manly  man.  5.  Which  has  the 
greater  effect  on  your  character,  your  environment  or  your  associates? 

6.  What  kind  of  an  employee  does  the  business  man  want  ?    7.  What  ele- 
ments of  character  are  demanded  by  my  vocation  ? 

Eleventh  grade,  second  semester.  Elements  0/ success  [duty  and  obligation). 

I.  Keeping  faith  with  self  and  with  others.  2.  One's  duty  toward  parents, 
friends,  and  employer.  3.  Discuss  "  Fidelity  is  seven  tenths  of  business  suc- 
cess." 4.  Am  I  the  architect  of  my  own  character  ?  5.  What  is  the  reward  of 
duty  done  ?  6.  Does  my  vocation  impose  upon  me  any  duty  or  obligation  ? 
Twelfth  grade,  first  semester.   The  individual  and  society. 

I.  Why  should  I  be  interested  in  the  following:  {a)  the  public  schools; 
{b)  social  settlements;   {c)  charity  organizations;  [d)  religious  societies? 
2.  My  vocation  in  the  community.    3.  My  avocation.   4.  What  could  I  do 
if  my  vocation  were  taken  from  me  ? 
Twelfth  grade,  second  semester.  Citizenship. 

I.  What  is  public  spirit?  2.  What  is  my  duty  to  the  state?  3.  Why 
obey  the  law?  4.  Why  be  honest  in  business?  5.  Should  business  interfere 
with  public  welfare  ?   6.  The  right  use  of  money. 

These  suggested  themes  are  merely  types  to  show  the  aim  of  the  work. 
Teachers  who  are  in  sympathy  with  the  plan  will  readily  work  out  their 
own  ideas.  The  pupils  themselves  will  also  suggest  many  profitable  studies. 
The  one  thought  of  preparation  for  life  and  life's  work  through  the  chosen 
vocation  should  be  the  dominating  purpose  underlying  the.  whole  scheme. 


250       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

VOCATIONAL  RECORD  CHARTS 

To  make  use  of  the  valuable  material  gained  through  the  written  themes 
and  personal  conferences  with  the  teachers  of  English,  a  plan  for  recording 
the  information  relating  to  vocational  guidance  has  been  devised.  Naturally 
the  first  record  desired  is  from  the  grammar  school,  to  be  used  as  a  guide 
if  the  pupil  enters  the  high  school,  or  to  be  kept  by  the  grammar-school 
principal  who  wishes  to  follow  up  those  who  have  entered  industrial  life. 
The  following  card  is  suggested  for  this  purpose. 

Vocational  Record  for  the  Eighth  Grade 

Name Age Date  of  graduation 

Parent's  name Address 

Parent's  occupation 

Vocational  Influence  of 
Family Health 


Habits Ability 

Experience Peculiarities  _ 

Character . Leadership  _ 


Stability . Vocation. 

Teacher's  opinion 


Teacher. 


When  a  pupil  has  entered  the  high  school  a  regular  scholarship  record 
is  kept  by  means  of  a  large  card  nine  and  one-half  inches  by  twelve  inches. 
On  the  back  of  this  card  is  recorded  the  progress  made  by  the  pupil  in  de- 
velopment of  character  and  vocational  tendencies.  The  information  received 
from  the  eighth  grade  is  affixed  or  transferred  to  this  card.  At  the  end  of 
each  semester  the  teacher  of  English  and  the  session-room  teacher  add  to 
the  record  such  data  as,  in  their  judgment,  may  be  of  future  value  in  giving 
advice  or  in  making  recommendations.  The  reverse  side  of  the  record  card 
is  prepared  as  shown  below. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  25 1 


Student  Vocational  Record 

Nanie___ Grammar  school. 

Record  from  eighth  grade 


English 

teacher, 

ninth 

grade 

first  spmpsfpr 

Session- 

room  teacher_ 

English 

teacher, 

ninth 

grade. 

sernnri  spmp<?tpr 

These  forms  and  spaces  are  continued  for  the  four  years  of  the  high- 
school  course.  All  records  are  kept  in  the  vault  of  the  school  and  are  not 
shown  to  the  pupils. 

Reverse  of  Regular  Scholarship  Record  Card 

VOCATIONAL  RECORD 

Name Parent's  vocation 


Semester 

Plans  for  future 

Ability 

Personal  history 

Character 

Teacher 

On  the  card  the  spaces  of  these  columns  are  of  equal  width.    The  card  is 
nine  and  one-half  inches  by  eleven  and  three-quarters  inches. 

Topics  of  record  under  the  above  headings  are  indicated  below.    All 
information  of  value  in  vocational  guidance  should  be  recorded. 


252        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Plans  for  future.  Vocation,  college,  employment,  etc. 
Abilitjj[.  Special  aptitude,  initiative,  skill,  capacity,  efficiency,  etc. 
Personal  history.  Home,  health,  travel,  employment,  etc. 
Character.  Honesty,  perseverance,  promptness,  stability,  habits,  etc. 

REMARKS 


SCHOOL  COUNSELORS 

The  Grand  Rapids  High  School  is  organized  with  six  session-room 
teachers,  who  are  in  fact  assistant  principals.  They  are  in  full  charge  of 
about  two  hundred  fifty  pupils  each,  and  all  matters  of  scholarship  and  petty 
discipline  are  within  their  jurisdiction.  These  teachers  form  a  sort  of  cab- 
inet for  the  principal  in  directing  the  work  of  the  pupils,  and  are  therefore 
well  situated  to  act  as  vocational  counselors.  The  problems  of  choice  of 
studies,  of  keeping  up  the  daily  work,  and  of  discipline,  offer  them  oppor- 
tunities for  vocational  guidance  that  many  times  bring  immediate  results. 
These  teachers  have  not  more  than  three  recitations  a  day,  so  that  they 
have  the  time  and  opportunity  to  talk  with  the  pupils.  At  the  beginning  of 
each  semester  these  teachers  examine  the  records  on  the  cards  just  described. 
They  add  the  experience  of  that  semester,  and  so  the  data  are  gathered  for 
use  as  they  may  be  needed  in  giving  advice  or  in  making  recommendations 
for  college  or  for  business  positions.  This  system  places  at  the  disposal  of 
the  principal,  who  is  the  chief  counselor,  the  combined  judgment  of  a 
dozen  or  more  teachers,  each  of  whom  has  had  a  special  opportunity  to 
study  the  pupil.  At  this  point  in  the  work  of  guidance  the  school  has  done 
about  all  it  can  without  the  cooperation  of  those  who  are  to  receive  the 
product  of  their  efforts.  v 

THE  FUNCTION  OF  THE  VOCATION  BUREAU 

The  whole  problem  of  vocational  guidance  is  primarily  educational.  It 
belongs  to  the  school  as  a  legitimate  part  of  its  work  just  as  positively  as 
the  teaching  of  any  subject  in  the  curriculum.  As  was  said  earlier  in  this 
paper,  we  have  worked  out  a  fairly  satisfactory  adjustment  of  the  relations 
between  the  public  school  and  the  higher  institutions  of  learning,  through 
many  years  of  conference  and  cooperation.  Now  we  must  pursue  the 
same  methods  of  conference  and  cooperation  with  the  men  who  are  directing 
the  business  institutions  into  which  our  pupils  are  to  enter,  as  we  have  in 
the  past  with  the  university  and  college  men. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  253 

If  all  this  is  to  be  done  successfully,  we  must  have  the  aid  and  counsel 
of  successful,  educated  business  men  and  women.  This  is  the  chief  function 
of  the  so-called  Vocation  Bureau.  In  each  city,  through  the  cooperation  of 
the  Board  of  Education  and  the  Board  of  Trade  or  Commerce,  a  commis- 
sion of  interested  citizens  should  be  appointed,  to  counsel  with  the  school 
authorities  in  the  solution  of  all  these  problems.  The  right  kind  of  citizens 
on  such  a  bureau  will  lend  power  to  the  movement  and  will  make  it  possible 
to  carry  out  the  plans  that  may  be  formulated. 

However,  1  wish  to  emphasize  the  principal  thesis  of  this  argument,  that 
the  movement  for  vocational  guidance  is  strictly  an  educational  function. 
For  this  reason  it  belongs  to  the  schools  as  a  formal  part  of  their  work, 
and  should  be  directed  by  the  authority  of  the  local  Board  of  Education. 
With  this  central  authority  the  work  can  be  conducted  with  greater  har- 
mony, and  more  effectual  results  can  be  obtained.  The  vocational  counselor 
should  logically  be  a  member  of  the  school  system,  in  touch  with  all  its 
departments  and  as  near  to  the  lives  of  the  pupils  as  possible.  The  principal 
of  the  school  from  which  the  pupils  go  out  into  the  world  is  their  natural 
counselor.  I  do  not  approve  of  the  idea  of  making  the  work  of  vocational 
counseling  a  "new  profession."  It  is  merely  the  broadening  out  of  the 
opportunity  and  duty  of  the  school  principal.  It  seems  to  be  a  very  logical 
way  of  meeting  the  demand  that  is  being  made  on  the  public  schools  for 
a  better  preparation  of  our  boys  and  girls. 

The  Grand  Rapids  Public  Library,  cooperating  with  the  school 
authorities,  published  in  its  Bulletin  of  October,  191 1,  the  fol- 
lowing list  of  books,  together  with  the  outline  of  the  plan  by 
Principal  Davis. 

VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE 

Outline  of  the  course  of  study  in  the  Central  High  School,  with  a  selected  list  of 
books  in  the  library  for  teachers  and  pupils 

Introductory  Note 

The  following  list  of  books  on  vocational  guidance  is  published  in  order 
that  the  work  of  the  library  in  meeting  requests  for  books  on  this  subject 
may  be  facilitated.  It  is  a  selected  list  only,  and  there  has  been  omitted 
from  it  the  whole  of  the  immense  amount  of  material  that  is  to  be  found 
in  the  reference  department,  chiefly  articles  in  magazines,  all  of  which  are 
readily  available  through  Poole's  Index  and  other  indexes.  There  are  included 
in  the  following  list  books  for  the  teacher  as  well  as  for  the  pupil. 


254       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

In  order  that  those  who  use  the  list  may  have  a  better  understanding  of 
the  purpose  of  vocational  guidance  as  carried  on  in  the  Central  High  School 
of  Grand  Rapids,  the  principal  of  the  school,  Professor  Jesse  B.  Davis,  has 
kindly  prepared  the  following  brief  statement  of  the  aims  of  this  work  and 
the  outline  of  the  course  of  study.  The  books  are  arranged  with  reference  to 
this  outline. 

Outline  of  Work  in  Vocational  GOidance  in  the  Central 
High  School 

By  Jesse  B.  Davis,  Principal 

Vocational  guidance  aims  to  direct  the  thought  and  growth  of  the  pupil 
throughout  the  high-school  course  along  the  line  of  preparation  for  life's 
work.  The  plan  is  intended  to  give  the  pupil  an  opportunity  to  study  the 
elements  of  character  that  give  success  in  life,  and,  by  a  careful  self-analysis, 
to  compare  his  own  abilities  and  opportunities  with  those  of  successful  men 
and  women  of  the  past.  By  broadening  his  vision  of  the  world's  work,  and 
applying  his  own  aptitudes  and  tastes  to  the  field  of  endeavor  that  he  may 
best  be  able  to  serve,  it  is  attempted  to  stir  the  student's  ambition  and  to 
give  a  purpose  to  all  his  future  efforts.  Having  chosen  even  a  tentative 
goal,  his  progress  has  direction.  In  the  later  study  of  moral  and  social  ethics 
he  has  a  viewpoint  that  makes  the  result  both  practical  and  effective. 

In  order  to  reach  all  the  pupils  in  the  high  school  this  work  is  carried 
on  through  the  department  of  English,  which  subject  all  pupils  must  take. 
Brief  themes  and  discussions  form  the  basis  of  the  work.  Pupils  are  directed 
in  their  reading  along  vocational  and  ethical  lines,  and  are  advised  by  teachers 
who  have  made  a  special  study  of  vocational  guidance.  The  following  out- 
line is  but  suggestive  of  the  type  of  themes  and  discussions  to  be  used. 
Each  teacher  is  given  opportunity  to  use  her  own  individuality  in  working 
out  the  details  of  the  scheme. 

Outline 
First   Year 

First  semester.    Elements  of  success  in  life.  , 

1 .  Everyday  problems. 

(a)  The  school ;  (d)  the  home ;  (c)  the  athletic  field ;  (d)  the  social 
group. 

2.  Elements  of  character. 

(a)  Purpose  of  life ;  (d)  habit;  (c)  happiness;  (d)  self-control;  (e) 
work;  (f)  health. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  255 

Second  semester.    Biography  of  successful  men  and  women. 

1.  Character  sketches. 

2.  Comparison  of  opportunities  of with  self. 

3.  Comparison  of  qualities  of with  self. 

Second  Year 
First  semester.    The  world^s  work. 

1 .  Vocations  —  professions,  occupations. 

2.  Vocations  for  men. 

3.  Vocations  for  women. 

Second  semester.    Choosing  a  vocation.  * 

1 .  Making  use  of  my  ability. 

2.  Making  use  of  my  opportunity. 

3.  Why  I  should  like  to  be . 

4.  The  law  of  service. 

Third  Year 
First  semester.    Preparation  for  life's  work. 

1 .  Should  I  go  to  college  ? 

2.  How  shall  I  prepare  for  my  vocation? 

3.  Vocational  schools. 

4.  How  shall  I  get  into  business  1 
Second  semester.    Business  ethics. 

1 .  Business  courtesy.  • 

2.  Morals  in  modern  business  methods. 

3.  Employer  and  employee. 

4.  Integrity  an  asset  in  business. 

Fourth  Year 
First  semester.   Social  ethics  :  the  individual  and  society  {from  the  point 
of  view  of  my  vocation). 

1.  Why  should  I  be  interested  in  {a)  public  schools?  (b)  the  slums?  {c) 

social  settlements?  {d)  public  charities?  {e)  the  church?  (/)  social 
service  ? 

2.  The  social  relation  of  the  business  man. 

Second  semester.   Social  ethics :    the  individual  and  the  state  [from  the 
point  of  view  of  my  vocation). 

1.  The  rights  of  the  individual. 

2.  Protection  to  the  individual  from  the  state. 

3.  The  obligations  of  citizenship. 

4.  The  rights  of  property. 

5.  The  responsibility  of  power. 


256       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

First  Year  —  First  Semester 

Elements  of  Success  in  Life 

Adams,  W.  H.  D.  The  Secret  of  Success.  1879. 

Babcock,  M.  D.   The  Success  of  Defeat.  1905. 

Bennett,  Arnold.    How  to  live  on  Twenty-four  Hours  a  Day.  c.  1910. 

Brent,  C.  H.    Leadership.  1908. 

Call,  Annie  P.   Everyday  Living,  c.  1906. 

Fowler,  N.  C.    Starting  in  Life.   What  each  calHng  offers  ambitious  boys 

and  young  men.  1907. 
Gilman,  N.  p.,  and  Jackson,  E.  P.    Laws  of  Daily  Conduct,  and  Charac- 
ter Building,    c.  1891. 
Grant,  Robert.    Search- Light  Letters.  1899. 
Griggs,  E.  H.   The  Use  of  the  Margin.  1907. 
GuLiCK,  L.  H.   The  Eflficient  Life.  1907. 
GuLiCK,  L.  H.    Mind  and  Work.  1908. 
Hardwicke,  Henry.   The  Art  of  getting  Rich.  c.  1897. 
HiGGlNSON,  T.  W.    Things  worth  while.  1908. 
HiLTY,  Carl.    Happiness,  Essays  on  the  Meaning  of  Life.  1903. 
Hubbard,  Elbert.   A  Message  to  Garcia,  c.  1900. 
Jordan,  W.  G.    The  Kingship  of  Self-control.    Individual  problems  and 

possibilities.  1901. 
Kellor,  Frances  A.   Out  of  Work.   A  study  of  employment  agencies, 

their  treatment  of  the  unemployed  and  their  influence  upon  homes  and 

business.  1904. 
Knowlson,  T.  S.    The  Art  of  Success.  1902. 
Knox,  G.  H.    Ready  Money.  1908. 

Lecky,  W.  E.  H.    Map  of  Life.    Conduct  and  character.  1900. 
Lorimer,  G.  H.    Letters  from  a  Self-made  Merchant  to  his  Son.*  1902. 
MacCunn,  John.   The  Making  of  Character.  Some  educational  aspects  of 

ethics.  1900. 
Marde.v,  O.  S.   Architects  of  Fate;  or.  Steps  to  Success  and  Power.  1896. 
Mar  DEN,  O.  S.   The  Making  of  a  Man.  1905. 

Marden,  O.  S.  The  Optimistic  Life :  or.  In  the  Cheering-up  Business.  1907. 
Marden,  O.  S.   Pushing  to  the  Front;  or,  Success  under  Difficulties.  1896. 
Marden,  O.  S.   The  Secret  of  Achievement,  c.  1 898. 
Marden,  O.  S.    Success.   A  book  of  ideals,  helps,  and  examples  for  all 

desiring  to  make  the  most  of  life.  1897. 

*  Letters  of  advice  concerning  a  business  career ;  full  of  humor  and  sound 
sense. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  257 

Marden,  O.  S.  Winning  Out.  A  book  for  young  people  on  character 
building  by  habit  forming,   c.  1900. 

Marden,  O.  S.    The  Young  Man  entering  Business,  c.  1903. 

Marden,  O.  S.   (ed.)   Talks  with  Great  Workers,  c.  1901. 

Mathews,  William.    Conquering  Success;  or.  Life  in  Earnest.  1903. 

Mathews,  William.  Getting  on  in  the  World;  or.  Hints  on  Success  in 
Life.  c.  1872. 

Sangster,  Margaret  E.  Life  on  High  Levels.  Familiar  talks  on  conduct 
of  life.  1897. 

Smiles,  Samuel.    Self-help,  with  Illustrations  of  Character.  1859. 

Van  Dyke,  Henry.    The  School  of  Life.  1905. 

Wagner,  Charles.  On  Life's  Threshold.  Talks  to  young  people  on  char- 
acter and  conduct.  1905. 

Whipple,  E.  P.    Success  and  its  Conditions,  c.  1871. 

First  Year  —  Second  Semester 
Biography  of  Successful  Men  and  Wotnen 

Addams,  Jane.    Twenty  Years  at  Hull  House.  191  o. 

Balfour,  Graham.    Life  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson.  1901.  2  vols. 

Ballou,  M.  M.    Genius  in  Sunshine  and  Shadow.  1886. 

Blackett,  Howard.    Life  of  Giuseppe  Garibaldi.  1888. 

Bolton,  Sarah  K.    Famous  Givers  and  their  Gifts,  c.  1896. 

Bolton,  Sarah  K.    Famous  Leaders  among  Men.  c.  1894. 

Bolton,  Sarah  K.    Famous  Leaders  among  Women,  c.  1895. 

Bolton,  Sarah  K.    Famous  Types  of  Womanhood,  c.  1892. 

Bolton,  Sarah  K.    Famous  Voyagers  and  Explorers,  c.  1893. 

Bolton,  Sarah  K.    Lives  of  Girls  who  became  Famous.  1886. 

Bolton,  Sarah  K.    Successful  Women.  1888. 

Brooks,  E.  S.  Great  Men's  Sons.  Who  they  were,  what  they  did,  and 
how  they  turned  out.  1895. 

Clemens,  W.  M.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  the  American,  c.  1899. 

Craik,  G.  L.  The  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties.  New  edition, 
revised  and  enlarged.  1865. 

Curtis,  W.  E.    The  True  Abraham  Lincoln.  1903. 

Davis,  R.  H.    Real  Soldiers  of  Fortune.  1906. 

Drake,  S.  A.  (ed.).    Our  Great  Benefactors.  1884. 

Ferris,  G.  T.  (ed.).  Great  Leaders.  Historic  portraits  from  the  great  his- 
torians. 1889. 

Ford,  P.  L.    The  Many-Sided  Franklin.  1899. 

Ford,  P.  L.    The  True  George  Washington.  1896. 


258       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Franklin,  Benjamin.   Autobiography,  c.  1896. 
Gilchrist,  Beth  B.    Life  of  Mary  Lyon.  1910. 

Gordon,  Anna  A.    The  Beautiful  Life  of  Frances  E.  Willard.  c.  1898, 
Hale,  E.  E.  (ed.).    Lights  of  Two  Centuries.'    1887. 
Harrison,  J.  A.    George  Washington,  Patriot,  Soldier,  Statesman.  1906. 
Houghton,  W.  R.    Kings  of  Fortune ;  or.  The  Triumph  and  Achieve- 
ments of  Noble,  Self-made  Men.  1888. 
Keller,  Helen.    Story  of  my  Life.  1903. 
Lawrence,  William.    Phillips  Brooks.  1903. 

McCabe,  J.  D.,  Jr.    Great  Fortunes  and  how  they  were  made.»  1870. 
Marden,  O.  S.    How  they  succeeded.    Life  stories  of  successful  men  told 

by  themselves.  1901. 
Morgan,  James.   Theodore  Roosevelt,  the  Boy  and  the  Man.  1907. 
Morris,  Charles.    Heroes  of  Progress  in  America.  1906. 
Neil,  Samuel.    Epoch  Men,  and  the  Results  of  their  Lives.  1871. 
Palmer,  G.  H.   The  Life  of  Alice  Freeman  Palmer.  1908. 
Parton,  James.    Captains  of  Industry;    or.  Men  of  Business  who  did 

Something  besides  making  Money.  1885.  2  vols. 
Parton,  James  (ed.).   Some  Noted  Princes,  Authors,  and  Statesmen  of  our 

Time.  1885. 
Pollard,  Eliza  F.    Florence  Nightingale. 
Raymond,  R.  W.    Peter  Cooper,  c.  1901. 
RllS,  Jacob  A.    The  Making  of  an  American.  1901. 
Rlis,  Jacob  A.    Theodore  Roosevelt  the  Citizen.  1904. 
Rothschild,  Alonzo.    Lincoln,  Master  of  Men.    A  study  in  character. 

Anniversary  edition.  1908. 
Schuchhardt,  Carl.    Life  of  Dr.  Schliemann. 

Smiles,  Samuel.  Industrial  Biography.  Ironworkers  and  toolmakers.  1863. 
Stoddard,  W.  O.    Men  of  Business.  1893. 
Stowe,  Harriet  B.  The  Lives  and  Deeds  of  Self-made  Men.  New  edition, 

revised.  1889. 
Tarbell,  Ida  M.    Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  1900.  2  vols. 
Tiffany,  Frances.    Life  of  Dorothea  Lynde  Dix.  1891. 
Washington,  B.  T.    Frederick  Douglass.  1907. 
Washington,  B.  T.   Up  from  Slavery.  1901. 
West,  Jennie  J.  Cornvvallis-.    The  Reminiscences  of  Lady  Randolph 

Churchill.  1908. 
Whipple,  E.  P.    Recollections  of  Eminent  Men.  1886. 

^  This  volume  contains  accounts  of  noted  artists  and  sculptors,  prose  writers, 
composers,  poets,  and  inventors. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  259 

Second  Year  —  First  Semester 

The  World's  Work  —  General 

Allerton,  S.  W.    Practical  Farming.  1907, 

Calkins,  E.  E.,  and  Holden,  Ralph.    Modern  Advertising.  1909. 

Carnegie,  Andrew.    The  Empire  of  Business.  1902. 

Cole,  G.  S.   Art  of  Salesmanship.   A  manual  for  retail  dry-goods  salesmen. 

1896. 
Collins,  J.  H.    Human  Nature  in  selling  Goods,   c.  1909. 
CoRBiON,  W.  A.  The  Principles  of  Salesmanship,  Deportment,  and  System. 

A  textbook  for  department-store  service.  1907. 
Dawson,  M.  M.    The  Business  of  Life  Insurance.  1906. 
De  Weese,  T.  a.    The  Principles  of  Practical  Publicity.   Second  edition. 

1908. 
DiCKSEE,  L.  R.,  and  Blain,  H.  E.    Office  Organization  and  Management. 

1906. 
Dryden,  J.  F.    Addresses  and  Papers  on  Life  Insurance.^  '909- 
FiSKE,  G.  B.  (comp.).    Prize  Gardening.  1901. 
Fitch,  Sir  J.  W.    Lectures  on  Teaching.    New  edition.  1887. 
Guernsey,  A.  H.  The  World's  Opportunities,  and  how  to  use  them.  1887. 
Hall,  Bolton.    A  Little  Land  and  a  Living.  1908. 
Haskins,  C.  W.    Business  Education  and  Accountancy.  1904. 
Hasluck,  p.  N.  (ed.).    The  Book  of  Photography.  1905. 
HuBER,  P.  G.,  Jr.    The  Stage  as  a  Career.    A  sketch  of  the  actor's  life,  its 

requirements,  hardships,  and  rewards.  1 900. 
Kleiser,  Grenville.    How  to  speak  in  Public.   Seventh  edition.  1910. 
Mathews,  J.  McD.    How  to  succeed  in  the  Practice  of  Medicine.  1905. 
Mitchell,  S.  W.    Doctor  and  Patient.  1904. 
Morris,  William.    The  Decorative  Arts.    Their  relation  to  modern  life 

and  progress. 
Munson,  J.  E.    The  Art  of  Phonography.    New  revised  edition.  1904. 
Palmer,  G.  H.,  and  Alice  F.   The  Teacher.  1908. 
Some  Arts  and  Crafts.  1903.^ 
Stoddard,  J.  S.   What  shall  I  do?  Fifty  profitable  occupations  for  boys 

and  girls  who  are  undecided  as  to  how  to  earn  their  own  living.^  c.  1 899. 

^  See  Chapter  VH,  "  Life  Insurance  as  a  Career." 

2  Contents :  Furniture  and  Decoration,  by  May  Crommelin  and  Mrs.  R.  B. 
Shaw ;  Wood  Carving,  by  Maria  E.  Reeks ;  The  Art  of  Enameling,  by  Elinor 
Hall^ ;  Spinning  and  Weaving,  by  A.  M.  C.  Bagley;  Bookbinding,  by  Ethel 
M.  M.  M'Kenna ;  Photographic  Portraiture  as  a  Profession,  by  Alice  Hughes. 

'  An  excellent  little  book  with  which  to  begin  a  study  of  this  problem. 


26o       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Strong,  C.  J.    The  Art  of  Show-Card  Writing.  1907. 
Thrasher,  M.  B.    Tuskegee,  its  Story  and  its  Work.  1900. 
Washburn,  R.  M.    Principles  and  Practice  of  Ice-Cream  Making.   1910. 
Wright,  Grant.  The  Art  of  Caricature.  1904. 

The   World's   Work — For  Men 

Arnold,  H.  L.   The  Factory  Manager  and  Accountant.  1910. 

Aylmer-Small,  Sidney.    How  to  become  a  Successful  Motorman.  1908. 

Bailey,  L.  H.   The  Training  of  Farmers.  1909. 

Bates,  W.  W.    American  Navigation.  1902. 

Bauer,  A.  G.    The  Art  of  Window  Dressing  for  Grocers,  c.  1902. 

Beveridge,  a.  J.   The  Young  Man  and  the  World.  1906. 

Britigan,  W.  H.,  and  Wharton,  G.  W.  (ed.).  Practical  Real-Estate 
Methods.  Third  edition.  1910. 

Byxbee,  O.  F.    Establishing  a  Newspaper.  1901. 

Clare,  George.   A  B  C  of  Foreign  Exchanges.  Fourth  edition.  1905. 

Cochrane,  C.  H.    Modern  Industrial  Progress.  1904. 

Cole,  W.  M.  Accounts,  their  Construction  and  Interpretation  for  Busi- 
ness Men  and  Students  of  Affairs.  1908. 

Collins,  J.  H.   The  Art  of  Handling  Men.  c.  1910. 

Dewsnup,  E.  R.  (ed.).    Railway  Organization  and  Working.  1906. 

Duncan,  R.  K.    The  Chemistry  of  Commerce.  1907. 

FiSKE,  A.  K.    The  Modern  Bank.  1904, 

FoLTZ,  E.  B.  K.    The  Federal  Civil  Service  as  a  Career.  1909. 

Fowler,  N.  C.    Building  Business.  1893. 

Given,  J.  L.    Making  a  Newspaper.  1907. 

Gladden,  Washington.   The  Church  and  Modern  Life.  190S. 

Grayson,  David.   Adventures  in  Contentment.  1907. 

Green,  S.  B.    Principles  of  American  Forestry.  1903. 

Harcourt,  L.  F.  Vernon-.  Civil  Engineering  as  applied  in  Construction. 
Second  edition,  revised  by  Henry  Fidler.  1910. 

Hooper,  Frederick,  and  Graham,  James.  Home  Trade;  or,  Modem 
Commercial  Practice.  Second  edition.  1905. 

HoYT,  A.  S.   The  Work  of  Preaching.  1909. 

Johnson,  Charles.    Guide  to  Successful  Auctioneering,  c.  1903. 

McPherson,  L.  G.    Working  of  the  Railroads.  1907. 

Moody,  W.  D.    Men  who  sell  Things.  Eighth  edition.  1910. 

Nelson,  E.  H.   The  Traveling  Salesman.  Fourth  edition,  c.  1S91. 

Olin,  C.  H.  Journalism.  Explains  the  workings  of  a  modern  newspaper 
office,  and  gives  full  directions  for  those  who  desire  to  enter  the  field  of 
journalism.  1906. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  26 1 

Parsons,  C.  C.    Business  Administration.  1909. 
Phillips,  W.  B.    How  Department  Stores  are  carried  on.  1901. 
Pratt,  S.  S.    The  Work  of  Wall  Street.  19 10. 
Rainsford,  W.  S.    A  Preacher's  Story  of  his  Work.  1904. 
Reid,  Whitelaw,  and  others.    Careers  for  the  Coming  Men.  1907. 
ROCHELEAU,  W.  F.    The  Geography  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  c.  1905. 
Scott,  W.  D.    The  Theory  of  Advertising.  1904. 
Scott,  W.  D.    Money  and  Banking.  1903. 
Shuman,  E.  L.    Practical  Journalism.  1903. 
Smith,  J.  R.    The  Organization  of  Ocean  Commerce.  1905. 
Starbuck,  R.  M.    Standard  Practical  Plumbing.  1910. 
Statham,  H.  H.    Architecture  for  General  Readers.  1896. 
Veblen,  T.  B.    The  Theory  of  Business  Enterprise.  1904. 
Waterhouse,  p.  L.    The  Story  of  the  Art  of  Building.  1901. 
Williams,  Archibald.    How  it  is  done ;  or,  Victories  of  the  Engineer. 
c.  1908. 

The   World'' s   Work  —  For  Women 

Alden,  Cynthia  W.   Women's  Ways  of  earning  Money.  1 904. 

Bennett,  Arnold.  Journalism  for  Women.  1898. 

BOSTWICK,  A.  E.    The  American  Public  Library.  1910. 

Campbell,  Helen  S.    Household  Economics.  1897. 

Campbell,  Helen  S.    Women  Wage  Earners.  1893. 

Candee,  Helen  C.    How  Women  may  earn  a  Living.^  igoo. 

Church,  Ella  R.   Money  Making  for  Ladies.  1882. 

Croly,  Jane  Cunningham.  {Jenny  June.)  Thrown  on  her  own  Re- 
sources; or.  What  Girls  can  do.  c.  1891. 

Dana,  J.  C.    A  Library  Primer.  Fifth  and  revised  edition.  1910. 

Drysdale,  William.    Helps  for  Ambitious  Girls,  c.  1900. 

Hersey,  Heloise  E.   To  Girls.  1902. 

Hodson,  Jane.    How  to  become  a  Trained  Nurse.  1898. 

Kilbourn,  Katherine  R.  Money-Making  Occupations  for  Women.  Sec- 
ond edition.   1901. 

Laughlin,  Clara  E.  (ed.).   The  Complete  Dressmaker.  1907. 

Lyttleton,  Mrs.  Arthur.   Women  and  their  Work.  1901. 

MacLean,  Annie  M.   Wage-Earning  Women.  1910. 

Mallon,  Isabel  A.  S.  {Ruth  Ashmore.)  The  Business  Girl  in  Every 
Phase  of  her  Life.  1898. 

1  A  discussion  of  twenty  lines  of  activity  which  are  open  to  women,  setting 
forth  the  necessary  natural  qualifications,  the  desirable  preliminary  training, 
and  the  remuneration  which  may  be  expected  in  each. 


262        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Needlework.*    1903. 

Richardson,  Dorothy.  The  Long  Day.  The  story  of  a  New  York  work- 
ing girl.  1905. 

Salmon,  Lucy  M.    Domestic  Service.  1897. 

Thoburn,  J.  M.    The  Deaconess  and  her  Vocation.  1893. 

Van  Vorst,  Bessie  and  Marie.   The  Woman  who  toils.  1903. 

White,  Saixie  J.    Business  Openings  for  Girls,  c.  1891. 

Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Boston.  Department 
of  Research.   Vocations  for  the  Trained  Woman,  c.  1910. 

Second  Year  —  Second  Semester 

Choosing  a   Vocation 

Bolen,  G.  L.    Getting  a  Living.  1903. 

Drysdale,  William.    Helps  for  Ambitious  Boys.  c.  1899. 

Eggleston,  G.  C.    How  to  make  a  Living.    Suggestions  upon  the  art  of 

making,  saving,  and  using  money.  1875. 
FiSKE,  L.  F.    Choosing  a  Life  Work.  c.  1899. 
High  School  Teachers'  Association  of  New  York  City.   Students' 

Aid  Committee.   Choosing  a  Career.    A  circular  of  information  for  boys. 

c.  1909. 
High  School  Teachers'  Association  of  New  York  City.   Students^ 

Aid  Committee.   Choosing  a  Career.   A  circular  of  information  for  girls. 

c.  1909. 
M ANSON,  G.  J.    Ready  for  Business;  or,  choosing  an  Occupation.  1889. 
Marden,  O.  S.    Choosing  a  Career,  c.  1905. 
Marslund,  Frank.    Occupations  in  Life.  1905. 
Parsons,  Frank.    Choosing  a  Vocation.  1909. 
Rollins,  F.  W.   What  can  a  Young  Man  do.-*  1909. 
Shaw,  Albert.    The  Outlook  for  the  Average  Man.  1907. 
Sizer,  Nelson.   What  to  do  and  why.    Trades  and  professions  and  the 

talents  and  temperaments  required  for  each.  1872. 
Strong,  Josiah.    The  Times  and  Young  Men.  c.  1901. 
Wingate,  C.  F.   What  shall  our  Boys  do  for  a  Living?  1908. 
Wyckoff,  W.  a.   The  Workers.    An  experiment  in  reality.''  1897- 1898. 

2  vols. 

1  Contents  :  Embroidery,  by  Ruth  M.  Day ;  Dressmaking,  by  J.  E.  Davis ; 
Millinery,  by  Mrs.  TurnbuU ;  Knitting  and  Crocheting,  by  Mrs.  Tumbull  and 
Miss  Tumbull. 

2  Contents  :  i.  The  East ;  2.  The  West.  Story  of  a  college  man  who  tried 
to  make  a  living  at  odd  jobs. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  263 

Third  Year  —  First  Semester 
Preparation  for  Life's   Work 
Barbe,  Waitmam.    Going  to  College,  c.  1899. 
BuRNHAM,  W.  P.   Three  Roads  to  a  Commission  in  the  United  States 

Army.  1893. 
CONWELL,  R.  H.    The  New  Day ;  or,  Fresh  Opportunities. 
CoRBiN,  John.   Which  College  for  the  Boy?  1908. 
Crawford,  Mary  C.   The  College  Girl  of  America,  and  the  Institutions 

which  make  her  what  she  is.  1905. 
EwART,  J.  A.,  and  others.    A  Civil  Service  Manual.  1908.  3  vols. 
Franklin,  W.  S.,  and  Esty,  William.    The  Elements  of  Electrical  En- 
gineering. Sixth  edition.  1910.  2  vols. 
Hall,  S.  R.    How  to  get  a  Position  and  how  to  keep  it.^  1908. 
Hancock,  H.  I.    Life  at  West  Point.  1902. 
Hyde,  W.  D.   The  College  Man  and  theCollege  Woman.  1906. 
Leupp,  F.  E.    How  to  prepare  for  a  Civil  Service  Examination,  c.  1898. 
Low,  W.  H.    A  Painter's  Progress.^  1910. 
Miller,  Fred.   The  Training  of  a  Craftsman.  1898. 
NoRRis,  H.  H.   An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Electrical  Engineering. 

Second  edition,  revised.  1909. 
Plympton,  G.  W.    How  to  become  an  Engineer;    or,   the  Theoretical 

and  Practical  Training  necessary  in  fitting  for  the  Duties  of  the  Civil 

Engineer.  1908. 
Ralph,  Julian.    Making  of  a  Journalist.  1903. 
Reeves,  I.  L.   A  Manual  for  Aspirants  for  Commissions  in  the  United 

States  Military  Service.  1910. 
Schriever,  J.  B.    (ed.).    Complete  Self-instructing  Library  of  Practical 

Photography.  Popular  edition.  1909.  10  vols. 
Sloane,  T.  O'C.    How  to  become  a  Successful  Electrician  ;  containing  the 

studies  to  be  followed,  methods  of  work,  field  of  operation,  professional 

ethics,  and  wise  counsel.    Fifteenth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  1906. 
Stevens,  C.  McC.    Complete  Civil  Service  Manual.    Revised  edition  by 

J.  M.  Vories.  c.  1908. 
Thwing,  C.  F.    College  Training  and  the  Business  Man.^  1904. 

1  Gives  information  about  advertising  for  a  position  and  how  to  write  let- 
ters of  application. 

2  Contents :  The  awakening  of  vocation ;  the  education  of  the  artist ;  the 
problem  of  self-support ;  experiences  in  the  Old  World  ;  thirty  years  at  home 
and  abroad ;  our  present  and  our  future. 

^  Contents :  In  general  administration ;  in  banking ;  in  transportation ;  in 
insurance  ;  in  human  relations. 


264       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Third  Year  —  Second  Semester 
Business  Ethics 

Brooks,  J.  G.  The  Conflict  between  Private  Monopoly  and  Good  Citizen- 
ship. 1909. 

Freedley,  E.  T.    Common  Sense  in  Business.  1879. 

Hadley,  a.  T.    Standards  of  Public  Morality.^  ^9°7- 

Holt,  Hamilton.    Commercialism  and  Journalism.  1909. 

Ross,  E.  A.    Sin  and  Society.    An  analysis  of  latter-day  iniquity.  1907. 

Wood,  Henry.    Natural  Law  in  the  Business  World.  1887. 

Yale  University.  Sheffield  Scientific  School.  Morals  in  Modem  Busi- 
ness. 1909. 

Fourth  Year  —  First  Semester 

Social  Ethics  —  The  Individual  atid  Society 

Addams,  Jane.    Democracy  and  Social  Ethics.  1902. 

Addams,  Jane.    The  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Streets.  1909. 

Dewey,  John.    School  and  Society.  1900. 

Henderson,  C.  R.    Social  Settlements,  c.  1899.    • 

Huxley,  T.  H.    Evolution  and  Ethics.'^  1903- 

Jones,  S.  M.    Letters  of  Labor  and  Love.^  c.  1905. 

Lee,  G.  S.    The  Voice  of  the  Machines.    An  introduction  to  the  twentieth 

century,  c.  1906. 
Potter,  H.  C.    The  Citizen  in  his  Relation  to  the  Industrial  Situation. 

1902. 
Riis,  J.  A.    The  Battle  with  the  Slum.  1902. 
Roosevelt,  Theodore.   A  Square  Deal.  c.  1906. 
Shaler,  N.  S.    The  Neighbor.    The  natural  history  of  human  contacts. 

1904. 
WiNSHip,  A.  E.    The  Shop.  c.  1889. 
Woods,  R.  A.  (ed.).   City  Wilderness.  A  settlement  study  by  residents  and 

associates  of  the  South  End  House.  1 899. 

^  Contents :  The  formation  of  public  opinion ;  the  ethics  of  trade ;  the 
ethics  of  corporate  management ;  the  workings  of  our  political  machinery ; 
the  political  duties  of  the  citizen. 

2  Contents  :  Evolution  and  ethics  ;  science  and  morals  ;  capital,  the  mother 
of  labor ;  social  diseases  and  worse  remedies ;  the  struggle  for  existence  in 
human  society ;  letters  to  the  Times  on  the  "  Darkest  England  "  scheme. 

8  Letters  of  Samuel  M.  Jones,  late  Mayor  of  Toledo,  Ohio,  to  the  men 
who  worked  in  his  machine  shops. 


VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  265 

Fourth  Year  —  Second  Semester 

Social  Ethics  —  The  Individual  and  the  State 

Allen,  W.  H.   Efficient  Democracy.  1907. 
Bailey,  L.  H.   The  State  and  the  Farmer.  1908. 
Brewer,  D.  J.    American  Citizenship.  1902. 
Bryce,  James.    The  Hindrances  to  Good  Citizenship.  1910. 
Cleveland,  Grover.    Good  Citizenship.  1908. 
Howe,  F.  C.   The  City,  the  Hope  of  Democracy.  1905. 
Hughes,  E.  H.    The  Teaching  of  Citizenship,  c.  1909. 
Jenks,  J.  W.    Citizenship  and  the  Schools.  1906. 
Jordan,  D.  S.   The  Nation's  Need  of  Men.  1910. 
Morlson,  G.  S.   The  New  Epoch.  1903. 

Shaler,  N.  S.   The  Citizen.  A  study  of  the  individual  and  the  govern- 
ment. 1904. 
Shaw,  Albert.    The  Business  Career  in  its  Public  Relations,  c.  1904. 
Strong,  Josiah.    Twentieth  Century  City.  c.  1898.  ^ 

Strong,  Josiah.    The  Challenge  of  the  City.  c.  1907. 
Taft,  W.  H.    Four  Aspects  of  Civic  Duty.  1907. 

New  York  City 

The  development  of  vocational  guidance  in  New  York  City 
has  been  almost  entirely  within  the  schools.  The  High  School 
Teachers'  Association,  through  its  Students'  Aid  Committee, 
first  offered  help  to  graduates  in  securing  positions,  and  later 
extended  the  work  to  directing  pupils  in  choosing  a  vocation 
earlier  in  the  course.  Each  day  and  evening  high  school  in 
1908  had  a  teacher  serving  voluntarily  in  the  capacity  of  voca- 
tional counselor.  In  order  to  reach  more  children  than  could 
be  reached  by  personal  conferences,  the  committee  published  leaf- 
lets on  such  subjects  as  "  Choosing  a  Career,"  '"  Openings  for 
Boys  in  Machine  Shops,"  "  Vocational  Adjustment  of  Children 
to  the  Public  Schools."  These  leaflets  were  practical  and  defi- 
nite. They  presented  facts  in  such  a  way  that  the  attention 
of  children  and  parents  was  called  to  the  value  of  making  a 
choice  of  vocation  and  of  some  definite  preparation  therefor. 


266       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

For  instance,  comparisons  of  the  average  earning  capacity  in 
several  lines  of  work  were  made,  and  the  differences  represented 
by  the  cash  sum  which  would  be  required  to  buy  an  equivalent 
annuity.  The  committee  is  making  several  systematic  investiga- 
tions which  will  furnish  a  more  scientific  basis  for  its  future  work. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Cincinnati  is  working  out  a  system  of  vocational  guidance  in 
which  cooperation  with  the  employers,  physical  and  psycho- 
logical examinations,  and  a  carefully  kept  record  are  important 
features. 

Reflection  will  show  that  a  well-considered  system  of  voca- 
tional guidance  is  especially  necessary  wherever  the  schools  offer 
varied  vocational  courses.  To  leave  the  children  without  counsel 
in  making  a  choice  from  among  the  many  educational  oppor- 
tunities would  be  to  invite  defeat  for  the  plan  of  diversified 
schools.  The  misfits  might  be  quite  as  numerous  and  the  ul- 
timate educational  results  be  even  more  disastrous  than  where 
all  children  are  compelled  to  follow  the  one  traditional,  cultural, 
course  of  study.  It  is  also  clear  that,  under  such  circumstances, 
vocational  guidance  will  fall  under  three  rather  distinct  classifi- 
cations :  the  giving  of  advice  to  pupils  as  to  choice  of  schools 
and  courses  within  the  school  system  ;  the  placement  of  pupils 
when  they  are  ready  to  assume,  or  must  perforce  enter  upon,  the 
vocational  responsibilities  of  life ;  and  the  giving  of  such  sub- 
sequent assistance  as  the  young  worker  may  need  in  adjusting 
himself  to  his  new  and  unfamiliar  surroundings. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

STATE  LEGISLATION 

Theoretically,  at  least,  public  opinion  and  interest  are  expressed 
in  legislation.  It  is  therefore  pertinent  to  examine  recent  state 
legislation  relating  to  industrial  education. 

No  attempt  is  made  to  give  an  exhaustive  recapitulation  of 
such  legislation,  and  much  that  is  more  or  less  closely  related  to 
our  subject  must  be  ignored.  For  example,  the  activity  of  the 
National  Child  Labor  Committee  has  brought  about,  during  the 
last  five  years,  important  modifications  in  laws  affecting  child 
labor  and  compulsory  school  attendance,  and  has  secured  a  more 
rigid  enforcement  of  laws  already  on  the  statute  books ;  but 
while  this  has  a  definite  and  important  bearing,  on  industrial 
education,  it  cannot  be  considered  here. 

Similarly,  since  the  legislation  in  certain  of  the  Western  states 
employs  a  phraseology  which  does  not  admit  of  a  clear  distinction 
between  manual  training  and  industrial  education,  it  is  omitted 
from  this  summary. 

The  examples  of  state  legislation  which  we  shall  examine 
relate  directly  to  industrial  education  given  in  the  upper  elemen- 
tary grades  and  in  the  secondary  schools  of  the  existing  public- 
school  systems,  or  in  specially  organized  schools  for  children 
above  the  compulsory  age. 

In  1909  the  American  Association  for  Labor  Legislation 
published  a  summary  of  legislation  on  industrial  education 
in  public  schools.  This  summary  was  prepared  by  Professor 
Edward  C.  Elliott,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 

In  Bulletin  No.  12,  issued  by  the  National  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Industrial  Education  in  19 10,  this  summary  was 

267 


268       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

revised,  and  critical  comments  on  the  extant  legislation  on 
the  subject  were  added  by  Mr.  Charles  A.  Prosser,  Deputy 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  Massachusetts. 

Vocational  Education  for  September,  1 9 1 1 ,  gave  a  brief 
abstract  of  the  most  recent  additions  to  state  legislation  in  the 
interests  of  industrial  education. 

In  making  the  following  compilations  from  these  sources  and 
from  the  original  texts,  the  author's  purpose  is  to  give  some 
comprehension  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  influence  which 
the  people  of  the  several  states,  acting  through  their  legislatures, 
have  brought  to  bear  on  the  movement  for  industrial  education. 

It  is  important  to  note  whether  the  legislation  is  permissive 
or  mandatory  ;  whether  state  aid  is  given,  and  under  what  con- 
ditions ;  and  with  whom  the  initiative  for  providing  industrial 
education  rests. 

The  states  are  considered  alphabetically,  and  the  chronology, 
so  far  as  that  is  important,  can  be  had  by  referring  to  the  text. 
The  laws  of  Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  Wisconsin  are 
given  in  considerable  detail  because  of  their  important  dif- 
ferences and  great  suggestiveness. 

Connecticut 

The  Connecticut  scheme  for  public  trade  schools  is  unique  in 
that  such  schools  are  completely  and  directly  under  the  control 
of  the  state  and  may  derive  their  entire  support  therefrom. 

The  Laws  of  1909,  Chapter  85,  authorize  and  direct  the  State 
Board  of  Education  to  establish  two  schools,  A  maximum  of 
fifty  thousand  dollars  annually  may  be  expended  by  said  board 
for  their  buildings,  equipment,  and  maintenance.  The  local 
communities  have  no  share  in  the  control,  but  may  contribute 
any  sum,  properly  voted,  to  the  enlargement  of  the  school  or  for 
the  improvement  of  its  efficiency. 


STATE  LEGISLATION  269 

Day,  part-time,  and  evening  classes  are  provided  for,  and  the 
Board  of  Education  is  authorized  to  enter  into  cooperative  ar- 
rangements with  manufacturing  and  mechanical  establishments. 
It  is  provided  that  no  person  under  fourteen  years  of  age  shall 
be  admitted,  except  that  during  vacations  the  board  may  admit 
such  children. 

Indiana 

The  new  laws  relating  to  industrial  education  in  Indiana  (Acts 
of  191 1)  are  two  in,  number.  The  first  is  a  special  bill,  and 
makes  it  possible  for  Indianapolis  to  acquire  the  Winona  Tech- 
nical Institute.  The  second  provides  for  a  "  commission  for 
investigation  of  industrial  and  agricultural  education,"  consisting 
of  seven  members  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor.  The  com- 
mission is  to  investigate  the  needs  of  education  in  the  different 
industries  of  Indiana,  and  to  see  how  far  these  needs  are  met 
by  existing  institutions.  It  is  to  consider  what  new  forms  of 
educational  effort  are  advisable.  It  is  to  investigate  also,  by 
means  of  printed  reports  and  the  testimony  of  experts,  what 
has  been  done  in  other  states  and  in  foreign  countries  in  similar 
educational  work.  The  committee  is  to  hold  hearings  in  at  least 
five  different  communities,  at  which  meetings  the  testimony  of 
interested  parties  is  to  be  taken.  The  report  of  the  committee 
is  to  be  sent  to  the  legislature  not  later  than  January  i,  191 3. 

Kansas 

Chapter  20  of  the  I^aws  of  1903  authorizes  boards  of  edu- 
cation in  cities  of  the  first  and  second  class  to  levy  a  special  tax 
of  one  half  mill  (amended  in  1909  to  ^  mill),  and  in  other  cities 
and  districts  one  mill  (amended  in  1909  to  \  mill),  for  the 
equipment  and  maintenance  of  industrial-training  schools  or 
industrial-training  departments  in  the  public  schools.  The  statute 
provides  for  state  aid  equal  to  the  amount  contributed  by  the 


270       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

school  district  for  such  purpose,  but  not  to  exceed  the  sum  of 
two  hundred  fifty  dollars.  The  total  sum  contributed  by  the  state 
is  not  to  exceed  ten  thousand  dollars  in  any  one  year. 

Maine 

The  Laws  of  191 1,  Chapter  188,  provide  that  the  state  super- 
intendent shall  advise  and  aid  in  the  introduction  of  industrial 
courses  in  free  high  schools  and  academies  aided  by  the  state. 
The  act  also  provides  for  the  introduction  into  all  normal  schools 
of  courses  in  manual  arts,  domestic  science,  and  agriculture  suf- 
ficient to  enable  the  graduates  to  teach  elementary  courses  in 
rural  and  grade  schools.  In  one  normal  school  the  courses  are 
to  be  extended  so  as  to  prepare  special  teachers  in  manual  train- 
ing, and  in  another  to  prepare  special  teachers  in  domestic 
science.  For  these  two  special  courses  an  annual  expenditure 
of  four  thousand  dollars  is  authorized  in  addition  to  other 
appropriations. 

Whenever  any  elementary  school  provides  instruction  in 
manual  training  and  domestic  science  that  satisfies  the  require- 
ment of  the  state  superintendent,  two  thirds  of  the  cost  of  said 
instruction  shall  be  paid  by  the  state,  up  to  eight  hundred  dol- 
lars per  instructor.  Two  thirds  of  the  cost  of  instruction  shall 
be  paid  by  the  state  to  any  high  school  providing  instruction 
in  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  or  domestic  science,  not  to  exceed 
five  hundred  dollars  annually  for  each  school.  State  aid  is  also 
given  to  evening  schools  which  include  in  their  course  of  study 
free-hand  or  mechanical  drawing,  domestic  science  or  manual 
training,  or  the  elements  of  the  trades. 

Any  town  may,  by  vote,  require  its  school  committee  to 
establish  and  maintain  as  a  part  of  the  public-school  system  a 
general  industrial  school,  open  to  all  children  who  have  com- 
pleted the  elementary  course,  or  who  have  attained  the  age  of 
fifteen  years,  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture,  household  science, 


STATE  LEGISLATION  271 

the  mechanic  arts,  and  the  trades.  Such  schools  must  be  sup- 
ported by  funds  additional  to  the  regular  school  fund  ;  must  be 
maintained  for  a  period  of  thirty-six  weeks  during  the  school 
year ;  must  employ  at  least  one  teacher  for  the  exclusive  work 
of  the  school ;  and  must  have  an  average  attendance  of  at  least 
twenty  pupils.  When  these  requirements  are  fulfilled  the  state 
will  aid  to  the  amount  of  two  thirds  of  the  cost  of  instruction, 
not  to  exceed  two  thousand  dollars  annually  for  any  one  town. 
The  state  provides  for  an  annual  appropriation  of  twenty-seven 
thousand  five  hundred  dollars. 

Massachusetts 

Section  2,  Chapter  42,  Revised  Laws  of  1902,  authorizes 
towns  to  maintain  evening  schools ;  course  of  study  including 
industrial  drawing,  both  free-hand  and  mechanical.  The  main- 
tenance is  mandatory  for  cities  and  towns  of  ten  thousand  or 
more  population. 

Sections  20-22,  Revised  Laws  of  1902,  as  amended  ;  Chap- 
ter 248,  Acts  of  1904,  authorize  the  organization  of  corporations 
for  the  conduct  of  textile  schools  and  provide  for  instruction  in 
the  theory  and  practical  art  of  textile  and  kindred  branches  of 
the  industry.  The  schools  are  to  be  supported  by  appropriations 
from,  city  and  state. 

Chapter  94,  Res.  1905.  Establishes  a  commission  to  consider 
the  needs  for  technical  education  in  the  different  ^ades  of  indus- 
trial skill  and  responsibility. 

Chapter  505,  Acts  of  1906,  as  amended  by  Chapter  572,  Acts 
of  1908,  as  amended  by  Chapter  540,  Acts  of  1909,  provides 
for  the  appointment  and  organization  of  the  Commission  on 
Industrial  Education ;  defining  duties,  powers,  and  authority 
relative  to  the  establishment  and  supervision  of  independent 
industrial  schools  throughout  the  state.  The  acts  provide  for 
state  aid  equal  to  one  half  of  the  local  expenditure. 


272       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Chapter  64,  Res.  1907,  provides  for  inquiry  into  the  organi- 
zation and  methods  of  the  textile  schools  of  the  commonwealth 
by  the  Commission  on  Industrial  Education. 

Chapter  457,  Acts  of  1909,  provides  for  the  termination  of 
the  Commission  on  Industrial  Education  ;  for  the  transfer  of  its 
duties,  powers,  and  authority  to  the  reorganized  Board  of  Edu- 
cation ;  and  for  the  appointment  of  a  commissioner  of  education, 
and  two  deputy  commissioners,  one  of  whom  shall  be  especially 
qualified  to  deal  with  industrial  education. 

Chapter  133,  Res.  19 10,  provides  for  an  investigation  and 
report  relative  to  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  agricultural 
schools. 

Chapter  471,  Acts  of  191 1,  codifies  and  amends  the  laws 
relating  to  state-aided  vocational  education,  and  specifically  re- 
peals all  conflicting  acts  or  parts  of  acts  passed  in  previous 
years. 

Chapter  471,  Acts  of  191 1,  begins  by  defining  "vocational 
education,"  "  industrial  education,"  etc.,  as  follows  : 

Section  i.  The  following  words  and  phrases  as  used  in  this  act  shall, 
unless  a  different  meaning  is  plainly  required  by  the  context,  have  the 
following  meanings : 

1 .  "  Vocational  education "  shall  mean  any  education  the  controlling 
purpose  of  which  is  to  fit  for  profitable  employment. 

2.  "  Industrial  education"  shall  mean  that  form  of  vocational  education 
which  fits  for  the  trades,  crafts,  and  manufacturing  pursuits,  including  the 
occupations  of  girls  and  women,  carried  on  in  workshops. 

3.  "  Agricultural  education  "  shall  mean  that  form  of  vocational  education 
which  fits  for  the  occupations  connected  with  the  tillage  of  the  soil,  the  care 
of  domestic  animals,  forestry,  and  other  wage-earning  or  productive  work 
on  the  farm. 

4.  "  Household-arts  education  "  shall  mean  that  form  of  vocational  educa- 
tion which  fits  for  occupations  connected  with  the  household. 

5.  "  Independent  industrial,  agricultural,  or  household-arts  school  "  shall 
mean  an  organization  of  courses,  pupils,  and  teachers,  under  a  distinctive 
management,  approved  by  the  Board  of  Education,  designed  to  give  either 
industrial,  agricultural,  or  household-arts  education  as  herein  defined. 


STATE  LEGISLATION  273 

6.  "  Evening  class  "  in  an  industrial,  agricultural,  or  household-arts  school 
shall  mean  a  class  giving  such  training  as  can  be  taken  by  persons  already 
employed  during  the  working  day,  and  which,  in  order  to  be  called  voca- 
tional, must,  in  its  instruction,  deal  with  the  subject  matter  of  the  day  em- 
ployment and  be  so  carried  on  as  to  relate  to  the  day  employment. 

7.  "  Part-time  or  continuation  class "  in  an  industrial,  agricultural,  or 
household-arts  school  shall  mean  a  vocational  class  for  persons  giving  a 
part  of  their  working  time  to  profitable  employment,  and  receiving  in  the 
part-time  school  instruction  complementary  to  the  practical  work  carried  on 
in  such  employment. 

To  give  "  a  part  of  their  working  time  "  such  persons  must  give  a  part 
of  each  day,  week,  or  longer  period  to  such  part-time  class  during  the  period 
in  which  it  is  in  session. 

8.  "Independent  agricultural  school"  shall  mean  either  an  organization 
of  courses,  pupils,  and  teachers  under  a  distinctive  management  designed 
to  give  agricultural  education,  as  hereinafter  provided  for ;  or  a  separate 
agricultural  department,  offering  in  a  high  school,  as  elective  work,  training 
in  the  principles  and  practice  of  agriculture  to  an  extent  and  of  a  character 
approved  by  the  Board  of  Education  as  vocational. 

9.  "  Independent  household-arts  school"  shall  mean  a  vocational  school 
designed  to  develop  on  a  vocational  basis  the  capacity  for  household  work, 
such  as  cooking,  household  service,  and  other  occupations  in  the  household. 

STATE  ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUrERVISION 
Section  2.  The  Board  of  Education  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to 
investigate  and  to  aid  in  the  introduction  of  industrial,  agricultural,  and 
household-arts  education ;  and  to  initiate  and  superintend  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  schools  of  the  aforesaid  forms  of  education;  and  to 
supervise  and  approve  such  schools,  as  hereinafter  provided.  The  Board 
of  Education  shall  make  a  report  annually  to  the  general  court,  describing 
the  condition  and  progress  of  industrial,  agricultural,  and  household-arts 
education  during  the  year,  and  making  such  recommendations  as  the  board 
may  deem  advisable. 

TYPES  OF  SCHOOLS 
Section  3.  In  order  that  instruction  in  the  principles  and  practice  of  the 
arts  may  go  on  together,  independent  industrial,  agricultural,  and  household- 
arts  schools  may  offer  instruction  in  day,  part-time,  and  evening  classes. 
Attendance  upon  such  day  or  part-time  classes  shall  be  restricted  to  those 
over  fourteen  and  under  twenty-five  years  of  age ;  and  upon  such  evening 
classes,  to  those  over  seventeen  years  of  age. 


2  74       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDl^CATION 

LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION  AND  CONTROL 

Section  4.  Any  city  or  town  may,  through  its  school  committee  or 
through  a  board  of  trustees  elected  by  the  city  or  town  to  serve  for  a  period 
of  not  more  than  five  years,  and  to  be  known  as  the  Local  Board  of  Trus- 
tees for  Vocational  Education,  establish  and  maintain  independent  industrial, 
agricultural,  and  household-arts  schools. 

Section  5.  i.  Districts  composed  of  cities  or  towns,  or  of  cities  and  towns, 
may,  through  a  board  of  trustees  to  be  known  as  the  District  Board  of 
Trustees  for  Vocational  Education,  establish  and  maintain  independent 
industrial,  agricultural,  or  household-arts  schools.  Such  district  board  of 
trustees  may  consist  of  the  chairman  and  two  other  members  of  the  school 
committee  of  each  of  such  cities  and  towns,  to  be  appointed  for  the  purpose 
by  each  of  the  respective  school  committees  thereof ;  or  any  such  city  or 
town  may  elect  three  residents  thereof  to  serve  as  its  representatives  on 
such  district  board  of  trustees. 

2.  Such  a  district  board  of  trustees  for  vocational  education  may  adopt 
for  a  period  of  one  year  or  more  a  plan  of  organization,  administration, 
and  support  for  the  said  schools,  and  the  plan,  if  approved  by  the  Board  of 
Education,  shall  constitute  a  binding  contract  between  the  cities  and  towns 
which  are,  through  the  action  of  their  respective  representatives  on  the 
district  board  of  trustees,  made  parties  thereto,  and  shall  not  be  altered  or 
annulled  except  by  vote  of  two  thirds  of  the  board,  and  the  consent  of  the 
Board  of  Education  to  such  alteration  or  annulment. 

Section  6.  Local  and  district  boards  of  trustees  for  vocational  education, 
administering  approved  industrial,  agricultural,  or  household-arts  schools, 
shall,  under  a  scheme  to  be  approved  by  the  Board  of  Education,  appoint 
an  advisory  committee  composed  of  members  representing  local  trades, 
industries,  and  occupations.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  advisory  committee  to 
counsel  with  and  advise  the  local  or  district  board  of  trustees  and  other 
school  officials  having  the  management  and  supervision  of  such  schools. 

Section  7  provides  that  residents  of  a  district  which  does  not 
provide  a  school  of  this  type  may  request  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion to  admit  them  to  the  school  of  another  city  or  town.  The 
tuition  is  to  be  paid  by  the  town  where  applicants  reside,  and  said 
town  is  to  be  reimbursed  in  part  by  the  state. 

Section  9.  i .  The  commonwealth,  in  order  to  aid  in  the  maintenance  of 
approved  local  or  district  independent  industrial  or  household-arts  schools 
and  of  independent  agricultural  schools  consisting  of  other  than  agricultural 


STATE  LEGISLATION  275 

departments  in  high  schools,  shall,  as  provided  in  this  act,  pay  annually  from 
the  treasury  to  cities  and  towns  maintaining  such  schools  an  amount  equal 
to  one  half  the  sum,  to  be  known  as  the  net  maintenance  sum.  Such  net 
maintenance  sum  shall  consist  of  the  total  sum  raised  by  local  taxation  and 
expended  for  the  maintenance  of  such  a  school,  less  the  amount,  for  the 
same  period,  of  tuition  claims,  paid  or  unpaid,  and  receipts  from  the  work 
of  the  pupils  or  the  sale  of  products. 

2.  Cities  and  towns  maintaining  approved  local  or  district  independent 
agricultural  schools,  consisting  only  of  agricultural  departments  in  high 
schools,  shall  be  reimbursed  by  the  commonwealth,  as  provided  in  this  act, 
only  to  the  extent  of  two  thirds  of  the  salary  paid  to  the  instructors  in 
such  agricultural  departments ;  provided  that  the  total  amount  of  money 
expended  by  the  commonwealth  in  the  reimbursement  of  such  cities  and 
towns  for  the  salaries  of  such  instructors  for  any  given  year  shall  not  exceed 
ten  thousand  dollars. 

3.  Cities  and  towns  that  have  paid  claims  for  tuition  in  approved  local 
or  district  independent  vocational  schools  shall  be  reimbursed  by  the  com- 
monwealth, as  provided  in  this  act,  to  the  extent  of  one  half  the  sums  ex- 
pended by  such  cities  and  towns  in  payment  of  such  claims. 


Michigan 

Act  35,  Laws  of  1907,  as  amended  by  Acts  of  1909,  estab- 
lishes county  schools  of  agriculture,  manual  training,  and  domestic 
economy.  Instruction  is  to  be  given  in  the  elements  of  agricul- 
ture, farm  accounts,  manual  training,  and  domestic  economy.  It 
provides  for  general  supervision  by  the  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  and  for  annual  state  aid  equal  to  two  thirds 
of  the  local  expenditure.  The  maximum  aid  to  be  given  to  any 
one  school  is  fixed  at  four  thousand  dollars. 

Act  228,  Laws  of  1909,  provides  for  a  state  commission 
on  industrial  education,  including  elementary  training  in  agri- 
culture. 

Act  22,  Laws  of  19 II,  empowers  school  districts  to  establish 
and  maintain  trade,  vocational,  industrial,  marine,  and  manual- 
training  schools,  gymnasiums,  and  scholarships,  and  to  accept 
gifts,  legacies,  and  devices  for  the  same.  This,  however,  was  in 


276       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL\EDUCATI0N 

the  nature  of  a  local  act,  and  was  intended  to  give  a  certain  city 
the  right  to  accept  a  bequest  which  had  been  made  to  it. 

Act  29,  Laws  of  1 9 1 1 ,  amends  the  law  in  regard  to  county 
schools  of  agriculture,  the  state  superintendent  being  allowed  to 
approve  two  such  schools  in  each  county  instead  of  one. 

New  Jersey 

The  Laws  of  1903,  Chapter  i,  extend  state  aid  to  school 
districts  establishing  and  supporting  industrial  education  or 
manual  training  in  the  course  of  study  of  the  schools  of  the 
district.  The  aid  so  given  equals  the  local  expenditure,  and 
provides  that  minimum  local  expenditure  shall  be  two  hundred 
fifty  dollars. 

The  Laws  of  1907,  Chapter  223,  authorize  expenditures  for 
buildings  for  industrial  education  in  cities  of  the  second  class. 

The  Laws  of  1908,  Chapter  55,  establish  and  maintain  sum- 
mer courses  of  instruction  in  methods  of  teaching  elementary 
agriculture,  manual  training,  and  home  economics,  and  appro- 
priate two  thousand  dollars  annually  therefor. 

The  Laws  of  1908,  Jt,  Res.  No.  9,  authorize  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  commission  to  inquire  into  the  subject  of  industrial 
education.  Res.  No.  7  of  the  Laws  of  1909  continued  this 
commission. 

The  Laws  of  188 1,  Chapter  164,  as  amended  by  the  Laws  of 
1906,  Chapter  20,  as  amended  by  the  Laws  of  1909,  Chapter 
78,  provide  for  the  establishment  of  schools  for  industrial  educa- 
tion by  boards  of  education.  The  state  grants  aid  equal  to  the 
local  expenditures,  up  to  a  maximum  of  ten  thousand  dollars. 

The  Laws  of  191 1  provide  that  a  commissioner  of  education 
be  appointed  by  the  governor  for  a  term  of  five  years.  He  is 
to  have  four  deputy  commissioners,  one  of  whom  is  to  devote 
his  time  to  the  inspection  of  industrial  education,  including 
agriculture. 


STATE  LEGISLATION  277 

NEW  YORKi 

Article  22.    General  Industrial  Schools,  Trade  Schools,  and 
Schools  of  Agriculture,  Mechanic  Arts,  and  Home-making 

Section  600.  General  industrial  schools,  trade  schools,  and  schools  of 
agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  and  home-making  may  be  established  in  cities. 
The  Board  of  Education  of  any  city,  and  in  a  city  not  having  a  Board  of 
Education  the  officer  having  the  management  and  supervision  of  the  public- 
school  system,  may  establish,  acquire,  conduct,  and  maintain  as  a  part  of 
the  public-school  system  of  such  city,  the  following : 

1.  General  industrial  schools  open  to  pupils  who  have  completed  the  ele- 
mentary-school course,  or  who  have  attained  the  age  of  fourteen  years,  and : 

2.  Trade  schools  open  to  pupils  who  have  attained  the  age  of  sixteen 
years  and  have  completed  either  the  elementary-school  course  or  a  course 
in  the  above-mentioned  general  industrial  school,  or  who  have  met  such 
other  requirements  as  the  local  school  authorities  may  have  prescribed. 

3.  Schools  of  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  and  home-making  open  to  pupils 
who  have  completed  the  elementary-school  course,  or  who  have  attained  the 
age  of  fourteen,  or  who  have  met  such  other  requirements  as  the  local  school 
authorities  may  have  prescribed. 

Section  601.  Such  schools  may  be  established  in  union  free-school  dis- 
tricts. The  Board  of  Education  of  any  union  free-school  district  shall  also 
establish,  acquire,  and  maintain  such  schools  for  like  purposes,  whenever 
such  schools  shall  be  authorized  by  a  district  meeting. 

Section  602.  Appointment  of  an  advisory  board. 

1.  The  Board  of  Education  in  a  city,  and  the  officer  having  the  manage- 
ment and  supervision  of  the  public-school  system  in  a  city  not  having  a 
Board  of  Education,  shall  appoint  an  advisory  board  of  five  members, 
representing  the  local  trades,  industries,  and  occupations.  .  .  .  Any  vacancy 
occurring  on  such  board  shall  be  filled  by  the  appointing  power  named 
in  this  section,  for  the  remainder  of  the  unexpired  term. 

2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  advisory  board  to  counsel  with  and  advise 
the  Board  of  Education,  or  the  officer  having  the  management  and  super- 
vision of  the  public-school  system  in  a  city  not  having  a  Board  of  Education, 
in  relation  to  the  powers  and  duties  vested  in  such  board  or  officer  by  sec- 
tion 603  of  this  chapter. 

Section  603.  Authority  of  the  Board  of  Education  over  such  schools.  The 
Board  of  Education  in  a  city,  and  the  officer  having  the  management  and 
supervision  of  a  public-school  system  in  a  city  not  having  a   Board  of 

^  Extract  from  Education  Law,  19 10. 


278       PIXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Education,  and  the  Board  of  Education  in  a  union  free-school  district  which 
authorizes  the  establishment  of  a  general  industrial  school,  a  trade  school, 
or  a  school  of  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  and  home-making,  is  vested  with 
the  same  power  and  authority  over  the  management,  supervision,  and  con- 
trol of  such  school,  and  the  teachers  or  instructors  employed  therein,  as 
such  board  or  officer  now  has  over  the  schools  and  teachers  under  their 
charge.  Such  boards  of  education  or  such  officer  shall  also  have  full  power 
and  authority : 

1.  To  employ  competent  teachers  or  instructors. 

2.  To  provide  proper  courses  of  study. 

3.  To  purchase  or  acquire  sites  and  grounds,  and  to  purchase,  acquire, 
lease,  or  construct,  and  to  repair  suitable  shops  or  buildings,  and  to  properly 
equip  the  same. 

4.  To  purchase  necessary  machinery,  tools,  apparatus,  and  supplies. 
Section  604.  State  aid  for  general  industrial  schools,  trade  schools,  and 

schools  of  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  and  home-making. 

1.  The  commissioner  of  education  in  the  annual  apportionment  of  the 
state  school  moneys  shall  apportion  therefrom  to  each  city  and  union  free- 
school  district  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dollars  for  each  independently  or- 
ganized general  industrial  school,  trade  school,  or  a  school  of  agriculture, 
mechanic  arts,  and  home-making,  maintained  therein  for  thirty-eight  weeks 
during  the  school  year,  and  employing  one  teacher  whose  work  is  devoted 
exclusively  to  such  school,  and  having  an  enrollment  of  at  least  twenty-five 
pupils,  and  maintaining  a  course  of  study  approved  by  him. 

2.  The  commissioner  of  education  shall  also  make  an  additional  appor- 
tionment to  each  city  and  union  free-school  district  of  two  hundred  dollars 
for  each  additional  teacher  employed  exclusively  in  such  schools  for  thirty- 
eight  weeks  during  the  school  year. 

3.  The  commissioner  of  education  may,  in  his  discretion,  apportion  to 
a  district  or  city  maintaining  such  schools,  or  employing  such  teachers  for  a 
shorter  time  than  thirty-eight  weeks,  an  amount  pro  rata  to  the  time  such 
schools  are  maintained  or  such  teachers  are  employed.  This  section  shall 
not  be  construed  to  entitle  matiual-training  high  schools^  or  other  secondary 
schools  maintainijig  manual-training  departments,  to  an  apportionment 
of  funds  herein  provided  for. 

Section  605.  Application  for  such  moneys.  All  moneys  apportioned  by 
the  commissioner  of  education  for  general  industrial  or  trade  schools  shall 
be  used  exclusively  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  such  schools  in 
the  city  or  district  to  which  such  moneys  are  apportioned. 

Section  606.  Annual  estimate  by  Board  of  Education,  and  appropriations 
by  municipal  and  school  districts. 


STATE  LEGISLATION  279 

1.  The  Board  of  Education  of  each  city,  or  the  officer  having  the  man- 
agement and  supervision  of  the  public-school  system  in  a  city  not  having  a 
Board  of  Education,  shall  file  with  the  common  council  of  such  city  a 
written  itemized  estimate  of  the  expenditures  necessary  for  the  maintenance 
of  its  general  industrial  schools,  trade  schools,  or  schools  of  agriculture,  me- 
chanic arts,  and  home-making,  and  the  estimated  amount  which  the  city  will 
receive  from  the  state  school  moneys  applicable  to  the  support  of  such 
schools.  The  common  council  shall  give  a  public  hearing  to  such  persons 
as  wish  to  be  heard  in  reference  thereto.  The  common  council  shall  adopt 
such  estimate,  and  after  deducting  therefrom  the  amount  of  state  moneys 
applicable  to  the  support  of  such  schools,  shall  include  the  balance  in  the 
annual  tax  budget  of  such  city.  Such  amount  shall,  be  levied,  assessed,  and 
raised  by  tax,  upon  the  real  and  personal  property  liable  to  taxation  in  the 
city,  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  that  other  taxes  for  school  purposes 
are  raised.  The  common  council  shall  have  power  by  a  two-thirds  vote  to 
reduce  or  reject  any  item  included  in  such  estimate. 

2.  The  Board  of  Education  in  a  union  free-school  district  which  main- 
tains a  general  industrial  school,  trade  school,  or  a  school  of  agriculture, 
mechanic  arts,  and  home-making,  shall  include  in  its  estimate  of  expenses, 
pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  sections  323  and  327  of  this  chapter,  the 
amount  that  will  be  required  to  maintain  such  schools,  after  applying  toward 
the  maintenance  thereof  the  amount  apportioned  therefor  by  the  commis- 
sioner of  education.  Such  amount  shall  thereafter  be  levied,  assessed,  and 
raised  by  tax,  upon  the  taxable  property  of  the  district  at  the  time  and  in 
the  manner  that  other  taxes  for  school  purposes  are  raised  in  such  district. 

Section  607.  Courses  in  schools  of  agriculture  for  the  training  of 
teachers.  The  state  schools  of  agriculture  at  St.  Lawrence  University,  at 
Alfred  University,  and  at  Morrisville  may  give  courses  for  the  training  of 
teachers  in  agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  domestic  science,  or  home-making, 
approved  by  the  commissioner  of  education.  Such  schools  shall  be  entitled 
to  an  apportionment  of  money,  as  provided  in  section  604  of  this  chapter, 
for  schools  established  in  union  free-school  districts.  Graduates  from  such 
approved  courses  may  receive  licenses  to  teach  agriculture,  mechanic  arts, 
and  home-making  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state,  subject  to  such  rules 
and  regulations  as  the  commissioner  of  education  may  prescribe. 

Ohio 

The  Laws  of  1909  amending  older  laws  authorize  any  Board 
of  Education  to  establish  and  maintain  manual-training,  domestic- 
science,  and  commercial  departments ;  and  agricultural,  industrial. 


28o       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

vocational,  and  trade  schools  in  connection  with  the  public- 
school  system.    No  state  aid  is  provided. 

The  Laws  of  1910  provide  that  in  case  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion of  any  school  district  establishes  part-time  day  schools  for 
the  instruction  of  youths  over  fourteen  years  of  age  who  are  en- 
gaged in  regular  employment,  such  Board  of  Education  is 
authorized  to  require  all  youths  who  have  not  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted the  eighth  grade  of  the  elementary  schools  to  continue 
their  schooling  until  they  are  sixteen  years  of  age ;  provided, 
however,  that  such  youths,  if  they  have  been  granted  age  and 
schooling  certificates  and  are  regularly  employed,  shall  be  re- 
quired to  attend  school  not  to  exceed  eight  hours  a  week  between 
the  hours  of  8  a.m.  and  5  p.m.  during  the  school  term.  All 
youths  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age  who  are  not 
employed  shall  be  required  to  attend  school  the  full  time. 

The  Cahill  Act  of  191 1  makes  the  teaching  of  agriculture  man- 
datory in  all  of  the  common  schools  of  the  state  excepting  in  the 
cities.  A  second  bill  requires  that  all  teachers  in  these  schools 
must,  after  September,  191 2,  take  an  examination  in  agriculture. 

Oklahoma 

The  Laws  of  1908,  Chapter  3,  S.B.  109,  put  in  force  section 
7,  Article  13,  of  the  constitution,  requiring  the  teaching  of  the 
elements  of  agriculture,  horticulture,  stock  feeding,  and  domes- 
tic science  in  the  common  schools;  create  a  commission  for 
agricultural  and  industrial  education  ;  provide  for  the  establish- 
ment of  departments  of  agricultural  instruction  in  the  state  nor- 
mal schools,  and  for  the  chair  of  agriculture  for  schools  in  the 
agricultural  and  mechanical  college  ;  and  provide  for  the  estab- 
lishment and  maintenance  of  agricultural  schools  of  secondary 
grade  in  each  supreme-court  judicial  district,  with  branch  agri- 
cultural experiment  stations  and  short  courses  for  farmers  in 
connection  therewith. 


i 


STATE  LEGISLATION  28 1 

Oregon 

Section  3442  of  the  code  provides  for  the  distribution  of  in- 
dustrial training,  when  required,  through  four  years  in  district 
and  county  high  schools.  The  Laws  of  1907,  p.  169,  authorize 
the  estabhshment  of  a  department  of  industrial  training  in  union 
high  schools. 

Pennsylvania 

Pennsylvania  has  enacted  a  new  school  code  (Acts  of  191 1), 
several  provisions  of  which  have  a  bearing  on  vocational  educa- 
tion. Article  4,  on  the  duties  and  powers  of  boards  of  school 
directors,  authorizes  any  board  to  establish,  equip,  furnish,  and 
maintain  the  following  additional  schools  or  departments  for  the 
education  and  recreation  of  persons  residing  in  said  district, 
which  said  additional  schools  or  departments,  when  established, 
shall  be  an  integral  part  of  the  public-school  district  and  shall 
be  so  administered :  namely,  high  schools,  manual-training 
schools,  vocational  schools,  domestic-science  schools,  kindergar- 
tens, libraries,  museums,  reading  rooms,  gymnasiums,  play- 
grounds, schools  for  blind,  deaf,  and  mentally  deficient,  truant 
schools,  parental  schools,  schools  for  adults,  public  lectures,  to- 
gether with  such  other  schools  or  educational  departments  as 
they,  in  their  wisdom,  may  see  proper  to  establish. 

Article  9  provides  that  the  state  Board  of  Education  shall 
encourage  and  promote  agricultural  education,  manual  training, 
domestic  science,  and  such  other  vocational  and  practical  educa- 
tion as  the  needs  of  the  commonwealth  may  require. 

Article  i  o  directs  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion to  appoint  one  expert  assistant  in  agricultural  education, 
one  in  industrial  education,  and  one  in  drawing. 

Article  16,  in  prescribing  the  course  of  study  for  elementary 
schools,  provides  that  there  shall  be  taught  the  common  English 
branches,  together  with  such  other  branches,  including  drawing, 


282       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

physical  training,  elementary  manual  training,  elementary  do- 
mestic science,  and  elementary  agriculture,  as  the  board  of  school 
directors  in  any  district  may  prescribe. 

Wisconsin  1 

Section  926:  22,  as  amended  by  Chapter  401,  Acts  of  1909.  Any  city 
in  the  state  of  Wisconsin  or  any  school  district  having  within  its  Hmits  a 
city  desiring  to  establish,  conduct,  and  maintain  a  school  or  schools  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  practical  instruction  in  the  useful  trades  to  young  men 
having  attained  the  age  of  fourteen  years  and  young  women  having  attained 
the  age  of  fourteen  years,  as  a  part  of  the  public-school  system  of  such  city, 
is  empowered  to  do  so  by  complying  with  the  provisions  of  sections  926 : 
23  to  926  :  30  inclusive,  of  the  Statutes  of  1898. 

Section  926 :  23.  Such  trade  school  or  schools  shall  be  under  the  super- 
vision'and  control  of  the  school  boards  of  the  respective  cities  or  school 
districts  in  which  they  may  be  located. 

Section  926  :  24.  The  school  board  of  every  such  city  or  school  district 
is  given  full  power  and  authority  to  establish,  take  over,  and  maintain  a 
trade  school  or  schools,  equip  the  same  with  proper  machinery  and  tools, 
employ  a  competent  instructor  or  instructors,  and  give  practical  instruction 
in  one  or  more  of  the  common  trades.  Such  a  trade  school  shall  not  be 
maintained,  however,  unless  there  be  an  average  enrollment  of  at  least  thirty 
scholars. 

Section  926 :  25.  Whenever  any  school  board  shall  have  established 
or  taken  over  an  established  trade  school,  such  school  board  may  prepare 
the  course  of  study,  employ  instructors,  purchase  all  machinery,  tools,  and 
supplies,  purchase  or  lease  suitable  grounds  or  buildings  for  the  use  of 
such  school,  and  exercise  the  same  authority  over  such  school  which  it  now 
has  over  the  schools  under  its  charge. 

Section  926:  26,  as  amended  by  Chapter  155,  Acts  of  1909.  Whenever 
any  school  board  shall  have  established  or  taken  over  an  already  established 
trade  school  or  schools,  it  may  appoint  an  advisory  committee  to  be  known 
as  the  committee  on  trade  schools,  consisting  of  five  citizens  not  members 
of  the  school  board,  each  of  whom  is  experienced  in  one  or  more  of  the 
trades  to  be  taught  in  the  school  or  schools,  to  assist  in  the  administration 
of  the  trade  school  or  schools  located  in  that  city,  which  committee  shall  be 
appointed  by  the  president  of  such  school  board  with  the  approval  of  the 
majority  of  the  board.    Such  committee  shall  have  authority,  subject  to  the 

^  Extracts  from  education  and  apprenticeship  laws. 


STATE  LEGISLATION  283 

approval  and  ratifications  of  the  school  board,  to  prepare  courses  of  study,  em- 
ploy or  dismiss  instructors,  purchase  machinery,  tools,  and  supplies,  and  pur- 
chase or  rent  suitable  grounds  or  buildings  for  the  use  of  such  trade  schools. 

Section  926 :  27.  Students  attending  any  such  trade  school  may  be 
required  to  pay  for  all  material  consumed  by  them  in  their  work  in  such 
school  at  cost  prices,  or  in  lieu  thereof  the  school  board  may  establish  a 
fixed  sum  to  be  paid  by  each  student  in  each  course,  which  sum  shall  be 
sufficient  to  cover  as  nearly  as  may  be  the  cost  of  the  material  to  be  con- 
sumed in  such  course ;  any  manufactured  articles  made  in  such  school  may 
be  disposed  of  at  the  discretion  of  the  school  board,  and  the  proceeds  shall 
be  paid  into  the  trade-school  fund. 

Section  926 :  28.  Whenever  any  such  school  board  shall  have  decided  to 
establish  a  trade  school  or  schools,  or  to  take  over  one  already  established 
under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  a  tax  not  exceeding  one  half  of  one  mill 
on  the  total  assessed  valuation  of  such  city  shall  be  levied,  upon  the  requisi- 
tion of  the  school  board,  as  other  school  taxes  are  levied  in  such  city ;  the 
fund  derived  from  such  taxation  shall  be  known  as  the  trade-school  fund, 
shall  be  used  in  establishing  and  maintaining  a  trade  school  or  trade  schools 
in  such  city,  shall  not  be  diverted  or  used  for  any  other  purpose  whatsoever, 
and  may  be  disposed  of  and  disbursed  by  the  school  board  of  such  city  in 
the  same  manner  and  pursuant  to  the  same  regulations  governing  the 
disposition  and  disbursement  of  regular  school  funds  by  such  boards. 

Section  926 :  29.  Any  school  board  desiring  to  avail  itself  of  the  provi- 
sions of  this  act  may,  before  the  trade-school  fund  herein  provided  for  becomes 
available,  establish,  take  over,  equip,  and  maintain  a  trade  school  or  schools 
out  of  the  regular  school  funds  which  may  be  at  the  disposal  of  such  school 
board ;  provided,  however,  that  all  moneys  used  for  these  purposes  out  of 
the  regular  school  funds  shall  be  refunded  within  three  years  from  the 
trade-school  fund. 

Section  926:  30.  i.  When  the  school  board  of  any  city  of  the  second, 
third,  or  fourth  class,  or  the  school  board  of  any  school  district  having  within 
its  limits  such  a  city,  shall  determine  to  establish,  take  over,  conduct,  or 
maintain  such  trade  school,  it  shall  publish  notice  of  its  intention  so  to  do, 
with  a  copy  of  the  resolutions  or  order  expressing  such  determination,  once 
each  week  for  four  successive  weeks  in  a  newspaper  published  in  said 
school  district,  and  shall  take  no  further  steps  in  said  matter  until  the  expi- 
ration of  thirty  days  from  the  date  of  the  first  publication. 

2.  If  within  such  thirty  days  there  shall  be  filed  with  the  clerk  of  such 
city  a  petition  signed  by  a  number  of  electors  of  the  school  district  equal  to 
twenty  per  centum  of  the  number  of  votes  cast  in  the  said  city  at  the  last 
municipal  election,  praying  that  the  question  of  the  establishment,  taking 


284       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

over,  conduct,  and  maintenance  of  such  trade  school  shall  be  submitted  to 
the  vote  of  the  electors  of  such  school  district,  the  city  clerk  shall  at  the 
earliest  opportunity  lay  such  petition  before  the  common  council.  The  com- 
mon council  shall  thereupon  at  its  next  regular  meeting,  by  resolution  or 
ordinance,  direct  the  city  clerk  to  call  a  special  election  for  the  purpose  of 
submitting  such  question  to  the  electors  of  such  city  and  school  district. 

5.  If  a  majority  of  the  ballots  cast  in  such  school  district  shall  be  in  favor 
of  the  establishment,  taking  over,  conducting,  or  maintenance  of  such  trade 
school,  then  such  board  shall  proceed,  as  heretofore  provided,  to  establish, 
take  over,  conduct,  and  maintain  such  trade  school.  But  if  a  majority  shall 
vote  against  such  proposition  to  establish,  take  over,  conduct,  and  maintain 
a  trade  school,  the  board  shall  take  no  further  steps  toward  such  end. 

6.  If  no  petition  to  submit  such  proposition  to  establish,  take  over,  or 
maintain  a  trade  school  to  the  vote  of  the  electors  shall  be  filed  with  the 
city  clerk  within  thirty  days  after  the  first  publication  of  the  notice  of  the 
determination  of  the  school  board  to  take  such  action,  then  such  school 
board  may  proceed  as  hereinbefore  provided,  without  submitting  such  prop- 
osition to  the  electors  of  the  district. 


Acts  of  191  i,  Chaf'ter  347.   Employment  of  Children  — 
Apprenticeship 

Section  i.  Sections  2377  and  2394,  inclusive,  of  the  statutes  are 
repealed. 

Section  2.  There  are  added  to  the  statutes  eleven  new  sections  to  read : 

Section  2377.  Every  contract  or  agreement  entered  into  between  a  minor 
and  employer,  by  which  the  minor  is  to  learn  a  trade,  shall  be  known  as  an 
indenture,  and  shall  comply  with  the  provisions  of  sections  2378  to  2386, 
inclusive,  of  the  statutes.  Every  minor  entering  into  such  a  contract  shall 
be  known  as  an  apprentice. 

Section  2378.  Any  minor  may,  by  the  execution  of  an  indenture,  bind 
himself  as  hereinafter  provided,  and  such  indenture  may  provide  that  the 
length  of  the  term  of  the  apprentice  shall  depend  upon  the  degree  of  effi- 
ciency reached  in  the  work  assigned,  but  no  indenture  shall  be  made  for 
less  than  one  year,  and  if  the  minor  is  less  than  eighteen  years  of  age,  the 
indenture  shall  in  no  case  be  for  a  period  of  less  than  two  years. 

Section  2379.  Any  person  or  persons  apprenticing  a  minor  or  forming 
any  contractual  relation  in  the  nature  of  an  apprenticeship,  without  comply- 
ing with  the  provisions  of  sections  2377  to  23S7,  inclusive,  of  the  statutes, 
shall  upon  conviction  thereof  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  fifty 
nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars. 


STATE  LEGISLATION  285 

Section  2380.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  commissioner  of  labor,  the 
factory  inspector,  or  assistant  factory  inspectors  to  enforce  the  provisions 
of  this  act,  and  to  prosecute  violations  of  the  same  before  any  court  of 
competent  jurisdiction  in  this  state. 

Section  2381.  Every  indenture  shall  be  signed: 

1.  By  the  minor. 

2.  By  the  father ;  and  if  the  father  be  dead  or  legally  incapable  of  giv- 
ing consent  or  has  abandoned  his  family,  then 

3.  By  the  mother;  and  if  both  father  and  mother  be  dead  or  legally 
incapable  of  giving  consent,  then 

4.  By  the  guardian  of  the  minor,  if  any. 

5.  If  there  be  no  parent  or  guardian  with  authority  to  sign,  then  by  two 
justices  of  the  peace  of  the  county  of  residence  of  the  minor. 

6.  By  the  employer. 

Section  2382.  Every  indenture  shall  contain  : 

1.  The  names  of  the  parties. 

2.  The  date  of  bifth  of  the  minor. 

3.  A  statement  of  the  trade  the  minor  is  to  be  taught,  and  the  time  at 
which  the  apprenticeship  shall  begin  and  end. 

4.  An  agreement  stating  the  number  of  hours  to  be  spent  in  work,  and 
the  number  of  hours  to  be  spent  in  instruction.  The  total  of  such  number 
of  hours  shall  not  exceed  fifty-five  in  any  one  week.  . 

5.  An  agreement  that  the  whole  trade,  as  carried  on  by  the  employer, 
shall  be  taught,  and  an  agreement  as  to  the  time  to  be  spent  at  each  process 
or  machine. 

6.  An  agreement  between  the  employer  and  the  apprentice  that  not  less 
than  five  hours  per  week  of  the  afore-mentioned  fifty-five  hours  per  week 
shall  be  devoted  to  instruction.    Such  instruction  shall  include : 

(a)  Two  hours  a  week  instruction  in  English,  in  citizenship,  business 
practice,  physiology,  hygiene,  and  the  use  of  safety  devices. 

(i>)  Such  other  branches  as  may  be  approved  by  the  State  Board  of  In- 
dustrial Education. 

7.  A  statement  of  the  compensation  to  be  paid  the  apprentice. 
Section  2383.  The  instruction  specified  in  section  2382  may  be  given 

in  a  public  school,  or  in  such  other  manner  as  may  be  approved  by  the  Local 
Board  of  Industrial  Education,  and  if  there  be  no  local  board,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  State  Board  of  Industrial  Education.  Attendance  at  the  public 
school,  if  any,  shall  be  certified  to  by  the  teachers  in  charge  of  the  courses, 
and  failure  to  attend  shall  subject  the  apprentice  to  the  penalty  of  the  loss 
of  compensation  for  three  hours  for  every  hour  such  apprentice  shall  be 
absent  without  good  cause.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  school  officials  to 
cooperate  for  the  enforcement  of  this  law. 


286       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Section  2384.  It  shall  be  lawful  to  include  in  the  indenture  or  agreement 
an  article  stipulating  that  during  such  jieriod  of  the  year  as  the  public  school 
shall  not  be  in  session  the  employer  and  the  apprentice  may  be  released 
from  those  portions  of  the  indenture  which  affect  the  instruction  to  be  given. 

Section  2385.  If  either  party  to  an  indenture  shall  fail  to  perform  any 
of  the  stipulations,  he  shall  forfeit  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than  fifty 
dollars,  on  complaint,  the  collection  of  which  may  be  made  by  the  com- 
missioner of  labor,  factory  inspector,  or  assistant  factory  inspectors  in  any 
court  of  competent  jurisdiction  in  this  state.  Any  court  of  competent  juris- 
diction may  in  its  discretion  also  annul  the  indenture.  Nothing  herein  pre- 
scribed shall  deprive  the  employer  of  the  right  to  dismiss  any  apprentice 
who  has  willfully  violated  the  rules  and  regulations  applying  to  all  workmen. 

Section  2386.  The  employer  shall  give  a  bonus  of  not  less  than  fifty 
dollars  to  the  apprentice  on  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  the  indenture, 
and  also  a  certificate  stating  the  term  of  the  indenture. 

Section  2387.  A  certified  copy  of  every  indenture  by  which  any  minor 
may  be  apprenticed  shall  be  filed  by  the  employer  wjth  the  state  commis- 
sioner of  labor. 

Section  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its 
passage  and  publication. 

Approved  June  15,  1911. 

Chapter  505.   Employment  of  Children  —  Schools 

Section  i .  There  is  added  to  the  statutes  a  new  section,  to  read : 
Section  1728c:  i.  i.  Whenever  any  evening  school,  continuation  classes, 
industrial  school,  commercial  school,  shall  be  established  in  any  town,  village, 
or  city  in  this  state  for  minors  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen, 
every  employer  shall  allow  all  minor  employees  over  fourteen  and  under 
sixteen  years  of  age  a  reduction  in  hours  of  work  of  not  less  than  the 
number  of  hours  the  minor  may  by  law  be  required  to  attend  school. 

2.  The  total  number  of  hours  spent  by  such  minors  at  work  and  in  the 
before-mentioned  schools  shall  together  not  exceed  the  total  number  of  hours 
of  work  for  -which  minors  over  fourteen  and  under  sixteen  years  of  age 
may  by  law  be  employed,  except  when  the  minor  shall  attend  school  a 
greater  number  of  hours  than  is  required  by  law,  in  which  case  the  total 
number  of  hours  may  be  increased  by  the  excess  of  the  hours  of  school 
attendance  over  the  minimum  prescribed  by  law. 

3.  Employers  shall  allow  the  reduction  in  hours  of  work  at  the  time 
when  the  classes  which  the  minor  is  by  law  required  to  attend  are  held, 
whenever  the  working  time  and  the  class  time  coincide. 


STATE  LEGISLATION  287 

4.  Any  violation  of  this  section  shall  be  punished,  as  is  provided  in  the 
case  of  violation  of  section  1728a  of  the  statutes. 

Section  2.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  conflicting  with  any  provisions  of 
this  act  are  repealed  in  so  far  as  they  are  inconsistent  therewith. 

Section  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its 
passage  and  publication. 

Approved  June  30,  191 1. 

Chapter  544.    Industrial  Education  —  Salaries  of  Teachers 

Section  i .  There  is  added  to  the  statutes  a  new  section,  to  read : 
Section  5531  :  i.  No  state  aid  shall  be  granted  to  any  school  for  instruc- 
tion given  in  agriculture,  domestic  economy,  manual-training,  or  industrial 
branches  unless  the  salary  paid  to  every  teacher  instructing  in  such  subjects 
be  at  least  at  the  rate  of  sixty  dollars  per  month. 

Chapter  616.    Industrial  Education  —  Duties  and  Powers  of 
State  and  Local  Boards 

Section  i .  There  are  added  to  the  statutes.thirteen  new  sections,  to  read  : 
Section  5S3p :  i.  i.  There  is  hereby  created  a  State  Board  of  Industrial 
Education  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor.  The  board  shall  consist  of  six 
appointive  members,  three  of  whom  shall  be  employers  of  labor  and  three  of 
whom  shall  be  skilled  employees.  The  state  superintendent  of  education  and 
the  dean  of  the  extension  department  and  the  dean  of  the  college  of  engineer- 
ing of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  shall  be  ex  officio  members  of  this  board. 

2.  Each  appointive  member  shall  hold  office  for  two  years  and  shall 
receive  traveling  expenses  and  one  hundred  dollars  per  year.  In  the  first 
appointments  the  governor  shall  designate  three  members  to  serve  for  one 
year  and  three  members  to  serve  for  two  years  from  the  first  day  of  July 
of  the  year  in  which  the  appointments  are  made.  All  appointments  there- 
after shall  be  for  two  years  except  appointments  to  fill  vacancies,  which 
shall  be  for  the  unexpired  portion  of  the  term. 

3.  Said  board  (a)  shall  have  control  over  all  state  aid  given  under  this 
act ;  (d)  shall  meet  quarterly  and  at  such  other  times  as  may  be  found  neces- 
sary ;  (c)  shall  report  biennially. 

Section  553p :  2.  i.  The  state  superintendent  of  education  shall  appoint 
an  assistant  in  the  department  of  public  instruction,  to  be  known  as  the  as- 
sistant for  industrial  education.  He  shall,  with  the  advice,  consent,  and 
direction  of  the  state  superintendent  of  education,  have  general  supervision 
over  the  public  industrial  schools  and  over  all  public  evening  schools,  con- 
tinuation schools,  and  commercial  schools  created  under  this  act.    The  laws 


288        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

relating  to  agricultural  schools  and  the  Platteville  Mining  Trade  School  shall 
remain  unaffected  by  this  act; 

2.  The  salary  of  the  assistant  shall  be  fixed  by  the  state  superintendent 
of  education  with  the  approval  of  the  State  Board  of  I  ndustrial  Education. 

3.  The  state  superintendent  of  education  shall  have,  in  addition  to  the 
assistant  for  industrial  education,  such  other  assistants  as  he  shall  deem 
necessary  for  work  in  the  same  general  field. 

4.  All  positions  except  that  of  assistant  for  industrial  education  shall  be 
filled  by  civil  service  examination,  as  provided  by  Chapter  3C3  of  the  Laws 
of  1905.  But  the  total  salary  list,  exclusive  of  the  salary  of  the  assistant, 
shall  not  exceed  ten  thousand  dollars  for  any  one  year. 

5.  The  assistant  shall  have  all  necessary  expenses  to  attend  conventions 
and  make  investigations  within  or  outside  of  the  state  when  such  expenses 
shall  have  been  previously  authorized  by  the  state  superintendent  of  edu- 
cation. 

Section  553p :  3.  i.  In  every  town  or  village  or  city  of  over  five  thousand 
inhabitants  there  shall  be,  and  in  the  towns,  cities,  and  villages  of  less  than 
five  thousand  inhabitants  there  may  be,  a  local  board  of  industrial  educa- 
tion, whose  duty  it  shall  be  t©  foster  and  establish  and  maintain  industrial, 
commercial,  continuation,  and  evening  schools.  Said  board  may  take  over 
and  maintain  in  the  manner  provided  in  this  act  any  existing  schools  of 
similar  nature. 

2.  Such  board  shall  consist  of  the  city  superintendent  of  schools  ex 
officio,  or  the  principal  of  the  high  school  ex  officio,  if  there  be  no  city 
superintendent,  or  the  president  or  chairman  of  the  local  board  charged 
with  the  supervision  of  the  schools  in  case  there  be  neither  of  the  above- 
mentioned  officers,  and  four  other  members,  two  employers  and  two 
employees,  who  shall  be  appointed  by  the  local  board  charged  with  the  super- 
vision of  the  schools,  and  who  shall  serve  without  pay. 

3.  The  term  of  the  appointive  members  of  the  local  boards  of  industrial 
education  shall  be  two  years  from  the  first  of  January  of  the  year  in  which 
they  are  appointed. 

4.  The  local  board  of  industrial  education  shall  elect  its  officers  from  its 
membership  —  a  chairman  and  a  secretary.  The  local  boards  of  industrial 
education,  with  the  cooperation  of  the  State  Board  of  Industrial  Education, 
shall  have  general  supervision  of  the  instruction  in  the  local  schools  created 
under  this  act. 

5.  No  state  aid  shall  be  granted  to  schools  created  under  this  act  without 
the  approval  of  the  local  board  of  industrial  education.  No  money  appro- 
priated by  the  city,  town,  or  village  for  these  schools  shall  be  spent  without 
the  approval  of  the  local  board  of  industrial  education. 


STATE  LEGISLATION  289 

6.  The  teachers  in  the  schools  created  under  this  act  shall  be  employed 
and  their  qualifications  determined  by  the  local  board  of  industrial  edu- 
cation. 

7.  This  board  shall  have  power  to  purchase  all  machinery,  tools,  and 
supplies,  and  purchase  or  lease  suitable  grounds  or  buildings  for  the  use 
of  the  schools  under  its  supervision.  Existing  school  buildings  and  equip- 
ment shall  be  used  as  far  as  practicable. 

8.  The  board  is  empowered  to  make  contracts  with  the  extension  division 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  to  give  instruction  in  such  branches  as  the 
department  may  offer  when,  in  the  judgment  of  the  local  board,  such  in- 
struction can  be  secured  to  better  advantage  than  by  local  provision. 

9.  Whenever  twenty-five  persons  qualified  to  attend  an  industrial,  com- 
mercial, continuation,  or  evening  school  file  a  petition  therefor  with  the  local 
board  of  industrial  education,  the  board  shall  establish  such  school  or  schools 
or  provide  other  facilities  as  authorized  in  this  act. 

Section  553p:4.  i.  The  local  board  of  industrial  education  of  every 
city,  village,  or  town  shall  report  to  the  common  council,  or  village  or  town 
clerk,  at  or  before  the  first  day  of  September,  in  each  year,  the  amount  of 
money  required  for  the  next  fiscal  year  for  the  support  of  all  the  schools 
established  or  to  be  established  under  this  act  in  said  city,  village,  or  town,  and 
for  the  purchase  of  necessary  additions  to  school  sites,  fixtures,  and  supplies. 

2.  There  shall  be  levied  and  collected  in  every  city,  village,  or  town, 
subject  to  taxation  under  this  act,  a  tax  upon  all  taxable  property  in  said 
city,  village,  or  town,  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
taxes  are  levied  and  collected  by  law,  which,  together  with  the  other  funds 
provided  by  law  and  placed  at  the  disposal  of  said  city,  village,  or  town  for 
the  same  purpose,  shall  be  equal  to  the  amount  of  money  so  required  by 
said  local  board  of  industrial  education  for  the  purposes  of  this  act. 

3.  The  rate  of  tax  levied  for  the  purposes  of  this  act  in  any  town,  village, 
or  city  shall  not  in  any  one  year  exceed  one  half  mill  for  the  maintenance 
of  all  schools  created  under  this  act. 

4.  The  said  taxes  for  the  purpose  named  in  this  section  shall  be  in 
addition  to  all  other  general  and  special  taxes  levied  for  town,  village,  or 
city  purposes,  and  shall  be  for  the  use  and  support  of  schools  established 
under  this  act. 

5.  The  treasurer  of  the  town,  village,  or  city  shall  keep  such  money 
separate  from  all  other  money,  to  be  used  exclusively  for  the  purpose  of 
industrial  education  as  herein  provided.  All  moneys  appropriated  and  ex- 
pended under  this  act  shall  be  expended  by  the  local  board  of  industrial 
education  and  shall  be  paid  by  the  town,  village,  or  city  treasurer  on  orders 
issued  by  said  board  and  signed  by  its  president  and  secretary. 


290       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

6.  All  moneys  received  by  said  board  shall  be  paid  to  the  town,  village, 
or  city  treasurer  for  the  fund  of  the  local  board  of  industrial  education. 

Section  553p:  5.  i..  The  course  of  study  in  these  schools  shall  be  ap- 
proved by  the  state  superintendent  of  education  and  the  State  Board  of 
Industrial  Education,  and  shall  include  English,  citizenship,  sanitation,  and 
hygiene,  and  the  use  of  safety  devices  and  such  other  branches  as  the  state 
superintendent  and  the  State  Board  of  Industrial  Education  shall  approve. 

2.  The  local  board  of  industrial  education  may  allow  pupils  attending 
any  school  established  under  this  act,  who  have  had  courses  equivalent  to 
any  of  those  offered,  to  substitute  other  work  therefor. 

Section  5S3p :  6.  i.  Not  more  than  ten  thousand  dollars  shall  be  appro- 
priated from  the  state  funds  for  the  purposes  of  this  act  in  any  one  city, 
town,  or  village,  and  state  aid  shall  not  be  given  to  more  than  thirty  schools 
established  under  this  act. 

2.  A  school  once  granted  state  aid  shall  be  entitled  thereto  as  long  as 
the  character  of  its  work  meets  with  the  approval  of  the  state  superintendent 
of  education  and  the  State  Board  of  Industrial  Education. 

3.  The  secretary  of  the  local  board  of  industrial  education  of  each  city, 
town,  or  village  in  which  such  school  or  schools  are  maintained  shall,  on 
the  first  day  of  July  in  each  year,  report  to  the  state  superintendent  of  edu- 
cation the  cost  of  maintaining  the  school,  the  character  of  the  work  done, 
the  number,  names,  and  qualifications  of  the  teachers  employed,  and  such 
other  information  as  may  be  required  by  the  state  superintendent  of 
education. 

4.  I  f  such  report  is  satisfactory  to  the  state  superintendent  of  education 
and  the  State  Board  of  Industrial  Education,  and  they  are  satisfied  that  the 
school  or  schools  have  been  maintained  in  a  satisfactory  manner  for  not  less 
than  eight  months  during  the  year  ending  the  thirtieth  of  the  preceding 
June,  the  state  superintendent  of  education  shall  make  a  certificate  to  that 
effect  and  file  it  with  the  secretary  of  state.  The  secretary  of  state  shall 
then  draw  a  warrant  payable  to  the  treasurer  of  such  city,  town,  or  village 
in  which  the  industrial  school  is  located  for  a  sum  equal  to  one  half  the 
amount  actually  expended  in  such  industrial  school,  continuation  school, 
evening  school,  or  commercial  school  during  the  preceding  year,  but  not 
more  than  three  thousand  dollars  shall  be  appropriated  to  any  one  school 
in  one  year. 

Section  553p:7.  i.  The  schools  established  under  this  act  shall  be 
opened  to  all  residents  of  the  cides,  towns,  and  villages  in  which  such 
schools  are  located,  of  fourteen  years  of  age  or  over,  who  are  not  by  law 
required  to  attend  other  schools.  Any  person  over  the  age  of  fourteen  who 
shall  reside  in  any  town,  village,  or  city  not  having  an  industrial  school  as 


STATE  LEGISLATION  291 

provided  in  this  act,  and  who  is  otherwise  qualified  to  pursue  the  course  of 
study,  may  with  the  approval  of  the  local  board  of  industrial  education  in 
any  town,  village,  or  city  having  a  school  established  under  this  act,  be 
allowed  to  attend  any  school  under  their  supervision.  Such  persons  shall 
be  subject  to  the  same  rules  and  regulations, as  pupils  of  the  school  who 
are  residents  of  the  town,  village,  or  city  in  which  the  school  is  located. 

Section  553P  :  8.  i.  The  local  board  of  education  is  authorized  to  charge 
tuition  fee  for  the  nonresident  pupils  not  to  exceed  fifty  cents  per  week. 
On  or  before  the  first  day  of  July  in  each  year  the  secretary  of  the  local 
board  of  industrial  education  shall  send  a  sworn  statement  to  the  clerk  of 
the  city,  village,  or  town  from  which  any  such  person  or  persons  may  have 
been  admitted.  This  statement  shall  set  forth  the  residence,  name,  age,  and 
date  of  entrance  to  such  school,  and  the  number  of  weeks'  attendance  dur- 
ing the  preceding  year  of  each  such  person  at  the  school.  It  shall  show 
the  amount  of  tuition  which,  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  the  town, 
village,  or  city  is  entitled  to  receive  on  account  of  each  and  all  such  pupils' 
attendance.  This  statement  shall  be  filed  as  a  claim  against  the  town,  vil- 
lage, or  city  where  the  pupil  resides  and  allowed  as  other  claims  are  allowed. 

Section  553p :  g.  Students  attending  any  school  under  this  act  may  be 
required  to  pay  for  all  material  consumed  by  them  in  their  work  in  such 
school  at  cost  prices,  or  in  lieu  thereof  the  school  board  may  establish  a 
fixed  sum  to  be  paid  by  each  student  in  each  course,  which  sum  shall  be 
sufficient  to  cover,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  the  cost  of  the  material  to  be  con- 
sumed in  such  course ;  any  manufactured  articles  made  in  such  school,  and 
that  may  accumulate,  shall  be  disposed  of  at  their  market  value  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  school  board,  and  the  proceeds  shall  be  paid  to  the  local 
treasurer  for  the  fund  of  the  local  board  of  industrial  education. 

Section  553p:  10.  The  State  Board  of  Industrial  Education  shall  also 
constitute  a  body  corporate  under  the  name  of  the  "  Board  of  Trustees  of  the 
Stout  Institute,"  and  shall  possess  all  powers  necessary  or  convenient  to 
accomplish  the  objects  and  perform  the  duties  prescribed  by  law.  In  such 
capacity  such  board  shall  also  employ  such  clerks  and  assistants  as  may  be 
necessary  to  properly  conduct  its  affairs.  The  state  treasurer  shall  be  ex 
officio  treasurer  of  the  board,  but  the  board  may  appoint  a  suitable  person 
to  receive  fees  or  other  moneys  that  may  be  due  such  board,  to  disburse 
any  part  thereof,  to  account  therefor,  and  to  pay  the  balance  to  the  state 
treasurer. 

Section  5S3p :  1 1.  Such  board  is  authorized  to  accept,  free  of  cost  to  the 
state,  and  to  hold  as  a  trustee  for  the  state,  the  property  of  the  Stout  Insti- 
tute located  at  Menominee,  Wisconsin,  and  to  maintain  such  institute  under 
the  name  of  "  The  Stout  Institute  " ;  provided  that  the  trustees  of  said 


292       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Stout  Institute  turn  over  to  the  state,  within  two  months  after  the  passage 
and  publication  of  this  act,  said  property  free  and  clear  of  all  encumbrances 
and  debt,  released  from  all  claims  or  interest  which  the  city  of  Menominee 
or  the  heirs  of  James  H.  Stout  may  have  had  in  said  property,  and  having 
put  the  buildings  in  good  co|idition  and  having  made  such  repairs  as  may 
be  necessary  before  turning  over  said  property.  The  board  is  also  author- 
ized to  accept  such  other  property  or  moneys  as  it  may  deem  advisable  to 
be  accepted,  which  can  profitably  be  used  by  it  in  promoting  the  interests 
intrusted  to  it.  Such  boards  may  purchase,  have,  hold,  control,  possess,  and 
enjoy  in  trust  for  the  state,  for  educational  purposes,  any  lands,  tenements, 
hereditaments,  goods  and  chattels,  of  any  nature,  which  may  be  necessary 
and  required  to  accomplish  the  purpose  and  objects  of  the  board,  and  may 
sell  or  dispose  of  any  personal  property  when  in  its  judgment  it  shall  be 
for  the  interests  of  the  state. 

Section  553p:  12.  The  purposes  and  ol:yects  of  the  institute  shall  be  to 
instruct  young  persons  in  industrial  arts  and  occupations,  and  the  theory 
and  art  of  teaching  such,  and  to  give  such  instruction  as  will  lead  to  a  fair 
knowledge  of  the  liberal  arts,  a  just  and  seemly  appreciation  of  the  nobility 
and  dignity  of  labor,  and  in  general  to  promote  diligence,  economy,  effi- 
ciency, honor,  and  good  citizenship. 

Section  553P :  13.  The  said  board  shall  have  power: 

1.  To  make  rules,  regulations,  and  by-laws  for  the  government  and 
management  of  the  institute  and  the  students  therein,  including  the  power 
to  suspend  or  expel  students  for  misconduct  or  other  cause. 

2.  To  appoint  a  president  of  the  institute  and  other  officers,  teachers, 
and  assistants,  and  to  employ  such  other  persons  as  may  be  required ;  to 
fix  the  salary  of  each  person  so  appointed  or  employed,  and  to  prescribe 
their  several  duties ;  to  remove  at  pleasure  any  president,  other  officer, 
teacher,  assistant,  or  person  from  any  office  or  employment  in  connection 
with  the  institute. 

3.  To  purchase  such  supplies  as  may  be  necessary  in  the  conduct  of  the 
institute  and  its  various  departments. 

4.  To  prescribe  rules,  regulations,  and  terms  for  the  admission  and  con- 
trol of  the  students,  to  prescribe  courses  of  study  and  methods  and  means 
of  instruction,  and  to  issue  certificates  or  diplomas. 

5.  To  cooperate  with  other  educational  institutions  and  agencies  in  m- 
struction  and  training  leading  to  efficiency  in  industrial  arts  and  occupations. 

Section  2.  There  is  hereby  appropriated  out  of  any  money  in  the  state 
treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  a  sum  sufficient  to  carry  into  effect  the 
provisions  of  this  act.  However,  in  no  case  shall  the  sum  appropriated  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  act  exceed  the  sum  of 


STATE  LEGISLATION  293 

thirty  thousand  dollars  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  July  i,  191 2,  nor  more 
than  fifty-five  thousand  dollars  per  annum  thereafter.  Twenty  thousand 
dollars  of  the  above  moneys  shall  be  set  aside  annually,  beginning  July  i, 
igii,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  Stout  Institute  as  provided  in 
this  act. 

Section  3.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  conflicting  with  any  provisions  of 
this  act  are  repealed  in  so  far  as  they  are  inconsistent  therewith ;  provided, 
however,  nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  construed  to  interfere  in  any  manner 
with  trade  schools  established  under  Chapter  122,  Laws  of  1907  (sections 
926 :  22  to  926 :  30  of  the  Annotated  Statutes),  and  amendments  thereof, 
unless  the  school  board  of  any  such  city  or  school  district  shall  by  a  majority 
vote  adopt  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and  shall  proceed  in  the  manner  pro- 
vided for,  for  every  town,  village,  or  city  of  over  five  thousand  inhabitants 
as  provided  in  this  act. 

Section  4.  This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its 
passage  and  publication. 

Approved  July  7,  191 1. 

Chai'tkr  660.    Industrial  Education  —  Attendance  of  Minors 
AT  School  required 

Section  i.  Subsection  i  of  section  1728c:  i  of  the  statutes  is  amended, 
to  read : 

Section  1728c:  i.  Whenever  any  evening  school,  continuation  classes, 
industrial  school,  or  commercial  school  shall  be  established  in  any  town, 
village,  or  city  in  this  state  for  minors  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and 
sixteen,  working  under  permit  as  now  provided  by  law,  every  such  child 
residing  within  any  town,  village,  or  city  in  which  any  such  school  is  estab- 
lished, shall  attend  such  school  not  less  than  five  hours  per  week  for  six 
months  in  each  year,  until  such  child  becomes  sixteen  years  of  age ;  and 
every  employer  shall  allow  all  minor  employees  over  fourteen  and  under 
sixteen  years  of  age  a  reduction  in  hours  of  work  of  not  less  than  the  num- 
ber of  hours  the  minor  ...  is  by  this  section  required  to  attend  school. 

Section  2.  This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its 
passage  and  publication. 

Approved  July  14,  191 1. 


The  Wisconsin  laws  are  more  complete  than  those  of  any 
other  state,  since  they  correlate  the  regulations  pertaining  to 
school  attendance,  child  labor,  apprenticeship,  and  education. 


294       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Combined  Agriculture,  Manual  Arts,  and  Home 
Economics 

•  As  indicative  of  the  practice  of  combining  agriculture,  manual 
training,  and  home  economics  in  the  legislative  enactments  in 
agricultural  states,  and  also  as  showing  the  growing  interest  in 
a  practical  education,  the  following  legislation  is  noted. 

MINNESOTA 

Chapter  314,  Laws  of  1905,  establishes  and  provides  for  the 
organization  and  maintenance  of  county  schools  of  agriculture 
and  domestic  science,  creates  county  school  boards  of  control, 
and  provides  state  aid  to  not  more  than  two  schools.  Instruction 
is  to  be  given  in  agriculture,  farm  accounts,  manual  training,  and 
domestic  economy. 

Chapter  247,  Laws  of  1909,  provides  for  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  departments  of  agriculture,  manual  training, 
and  domestic  economy  in  state  high,  graded,  and  consolidated 
schools,  and  authorizes  rural  schools  to  become  associated  with 
such  state  graded  or  high  schools.  It  extends  state  aid  equal  to 
twice  the  amount  of  local  expenditure  and  fixes  the  maximum 
annual  aid  to  any  one  school  at  $2500,  and  the  maximum  number 
of  schools  to  be  aided  at  ten.  It  appropriates  ^25,000  for  19 10 
and  $25,000  for  191 1. 

The  Laws  of  191 1  reenact,  by  the  Putnam  Act,  the  legislation 
of  1909  with  but  minor  modifications.  The  new  features  are  : 

First.  An  increase  from  ten  to  thirty  of  the  number  of  schools 
to  be  designated  to  undertake  the  industrial  work,  thus  adding 
twenty  schools.  (These  were  designated  by  the  High  School 
Board,  April  22.) 

Second.  A  provision  for  additional  aid  of  $200  for  each  rural 
school  district  associating,  $1 50  being  paid  to  the  central  school 
and  $50  to  the  rural  school. 


\  STATE  LEGISLATION  295 

Third.  Permitting  tuition,  not  to  exceed  ;Ji2.50  a  month  per 
pupil,  to  be  charged  nonresident  students,  taking  the  industrial 
work,  the  tuition  to  be  paid  by  the  school  district  in  which  the 
pupil  resides. 

Fourth.  Permitting  the  rural  schools  associating  to  levy  a 
tax  for  an  industrial  building  in  connection  with  the  central 
school.  This  is  merely  a  permissive  provision;  the  matter  is 
to  be  determined  by  each  rural  school  district  associating. 

Fifth.  Raising  the  minimum  tax  levy  to  be  imposed  on  the 
associated  schools  to  two  mills,  and  removing  the  maximum  limi- 
tation of  four  mills  in  the  old  law. 

Sixth.  Permitting  a  tract  of  land  for  experimental  purposes 
to  be  acquired  in  one  or  more  of  the  associated  rural  districts. 

A  part  of  section  3  reads  :  '"  The  instruction  in  such  agricul- 
tural and  industrial  department  shall  be  of  a  practical  character, 
dealing  with  soils,  crops,  fertilizers,  drainage,  farm  machinery, 
farm  buildings,  breeds  of  live  stock,  live-stock  judging,  animal 
diseases  and  remedies,  production  of  milk  and  cream,  testing  of 
same,  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese,  horticulture,  garden- 
ing, plants,  and  such  other  questions  as  have  a  direct  relation 
to  the  business  of  farming,  including  bookkeeping  and  farm 
accounts.  It  shall  also  include  systematic  courses  in  manual 
training,  and  in  home  economics,  as  these  are  usually  taught  in 
public  schools." 

Chapter  91,  a  companion  act  to  the  Putnam  Act,  provides 
for  establishing  a  course  in  agriculture  and  in  either  home 
economics  or  manual  training  in  any  high  or  graded  school. 
One  thousand  dollars  special  aid  is  provided  for  each  school. 
The  High  School  Board  is  directed  to  designate  the  high  or 
graded  schools  in  which  this  work  may  be  undertaken.  An  ap- 
propriation of  $50,000  for  the  next  school  year,  and  $75,000  for 
the  second  year,  is  made.  It  will  be  understood  that  rural  schools 
may  associate  to  receive  the  benefits  of  industrial  training  under 


296       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

this  act  in  the  same  manner  as  under  the  Putnam  Act.  The 
additional  aid  of  ;^200  for  association  does  not  extend  to  the 
schools  maintaining  industrial  departments  under  this  chapter 
[91].  Rural  schools  associated  under  either  act,  however,  may 
receive  the  special  state  aid  of  $150,  $100,  or  $ys  provided  for 
common  schools  under  Chapter  60. 

Chapter  207,  an  act  relating  to  the  consolidation  of  rural 
schools,  and  known  as  the  Holmberg  Act,  provides  that  each 
consolidated  school  must  be  in  session  for  eight  months  and 
must  employ  a  principal  who  has  special  training  and  prepara- 
tion for  directing  the  teaching  of  agriculture  and  other  industrial 
lines.  A  school  of  Class  A  must  provide  a  building  of  four 
rooms  or  departments,  and  will  receive  state  aid  of  $1500.  A 
school  of  Class  B  must  provide  a  building  of  three  rooms  and 
will  receive  state  aid  of  ^1000.  One  of  Class  C  must  be  a  two- 
department  school  and  will  receive  $7S^  ^id.  Additional  aid 
for  the  erection  of  a  school  building  for  either  class,  to  the 
amount  of  25  per  cent  of  the  cost  and  not  exceeding  $1500, 
is  also  provided. 

NORTH  DAKOTA 

The  legislature  of  191 1  passed  a  law  providing  state  aid  for 
rural  and  graded  schools.  The  graded  schools  are  divided  into 
two  classes,  both  of  which  must  include  in  their  courses  of  study 
two-year  high-school  courses  as  suggested  by  the  State  High 
School  Board,  such  courses,  for  example,  as  domestic  science, 
manual  training,  and  elementary  agriculture,  and  must  comply 
with  such  rules  as  may  be  established  by  the  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction. 

The  rural  schools  are  divided  into  two  classes,  both  of  which 
must  include  in  their  course  of  study  elementary  agriculture. 
To  these  four  classes  of  schools  are  given  annually  by  the  state 
$150,  $100,  $100,  and  $50  respectively,  upon  compliance  with 


STATE  LEGISLATION  297 

certain  conditions,  including  those  stated  above.  Further  state 
aid  is  offered  as  a  premium  for  consolidation. 

The  new  law,  which  went  into  effect  July  i,  191 1,  provides 
for  the  maintenance  of  agricultural,  manual-training,  and  do- 
mestic-economy departments  in  high  schools.  Any  state  high, 
graded,  or  consolidated  rural  school  having  satisfactory  rooms 
and  equipment,  and  having  shown  itself  fitted  by  location  and 
otherwise  to  do  agricultural  work,  may,  upon  application  to  the 
High  School  Board,  be  designated  to  maintain  an  agricultural 
department. 

Each  of  such  schools  shall  employ  trained  instructors  in 
agriculture,  manual  training,  and  domestic  science  (including 
cooking  and  sewing),  and  shall  have  connected  therewith,  so 
long  as  they  shall  enjoy  the  benefits  of  this  act,  a  tract  of  land 
suitable  for  a  school  garden  and  purposes  of  demonstration,  con- 
taining not  less  than  ten  acres  and  located  within  one  mile  of 
the  school  buildings. 

Instruction  in  the  industrial  department  herein  provided 
shall  be  free  to  all  residents  of  this  state.  Where  necessary  to 
accommodate  a  reasonable  number  of  boys  and  girls  able  to  attend 
only  in  the  winter  months,  special  classes  shall  be  formed  for 
them.  Said  department  shall  offer  instruction  in  soils,  crops, 
fertilizers,  drainage,  farm  machinery,  farm  buildings,  breeds  of 
live  stock,  stock  judging,  animal  diseases  and  remedies,  produc- 
tion, testing,  and  hauling  of  milk  and  cream,  the  manufacture 
of  butter  and  cheese,  the  growth  of  fruit  and  berries,  manage- 
ment of  orchards,  market-garden  and  vegetable  crops,  cereal 
grains,  fine  seeds,  bookkeeping  and  farm  accounts,  and  all  other 
matters  pertaining  to  general  practice. 

Each  of  said  schools  shall  receive  state  aid  to  the  sum  of 
$2500,  and  its  proportionate  share  of  all  moneys  appropriated 
by  the  national  government  for  the  teaching  of  elementary  or 
secondary  agriculture  in  the  public  or  high  schools  of  this  state, 


298       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

but  shall  not  participate  in  the  state  aid  now  being  given  to  the 
state  high  schools.  Not  more  than  five  schools  shall  be  aided 
the  first  year,  nor  more  than  five  be  added  to  the  list  every  two 
years  thereafter ;  provided  that  not  more  than  one  school  in 
any  county  shall  be  added  to  the  list  of  state  schools  receiving 
state  aid  under  this  act  in  any  two  years. 

For  the  purpose  of  extending  the  teaching  of  agriculture, 
home  economics,  and  manual  training  to  pupils  in  rural  schools, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  extending  the  influence  and  supervision 
of  state  high  or  graded  schools,  one  or  more  rural  schools  may 
become  associated  with  any  state  high  or  graded  school  main- 
taining a  department  of  agriculture,  whether  or  not  such  high 
or  graded  school  has  been  designated  by  the  State  Agricultural 
High  School  Board  to  receive  aid  under  the  provisions  of 
this  act. 

VERMONT 

By  an  act  approved  in  January,  1909,  any  high  or  grammar 
school  whose  course  of  study  or  outline  of  work  in  manual 
training  has  been  approved  by  the  state  superintendent  of 
education,  may,  upon  application,  be  placed  upon  an  approved 
list  of  schools  maintaining  manual-training  departments.  A 
school  once  entered  upon  such  list  may  remain  there  and  be 
entitled  to  state  aid  so  long  as  the  scope  and  character  of  its 
work  are-  maintained  in  such  a  manner  as  to  meet  the  approval 
of  such  superintendent. 

Two  or  more  towns  may  unite  as  a  district  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  indttstfial  schools  provided  for  in  the  preceding 
section,  but  no  such  district  should  be  created  without  the 
approval  of  the  superintendent  of  education. 

Approved  January  27,  1909. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 

While  agricultural  education  does  not  come  properly  within 
our  subject,  since  it  is  coordinate  with,  rather  than  a  phase  of, 
industrial  education,  it  should  be  noted  that  there  is  a  strong 
demand  for  this  form  of  training  throughout  the  country.  Per- 
haps the  most  significant  statement  that  can  be  made  about  it 
is  that  here,  too,  the  demand  is  for  a  training  which  will  reach 
the  elementary  grades  through  the  training  of  teachers  for  rural 
schools,  and  for  the  establishment  of  thoroughly  practical  courses 
of  agriculture,  instead  of  courses  in  "  high-school  botany,"  for 
the  secondary  schools.  Where  such  courses  have  been  intro- 
duced, theory  has  not  been  omitted  or  minimized  but  has  been 
immediately  related  to  farm  practices,  and  both  experimentation 
and  demonstration  have  been  deemed  fundamentally  important. 

While  educators  have  been  quicker  to  see  the  need  of  agricul- 
tural education  than  they  have  been  to  appreciate  the  needs  of  the 
industrial  workers,  and  while  they  have  brought  the  higher  insti- 
tutions for  agricultural  education  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  people, 
it  remains  for  the  practical  men  of  affairs  to  see  and  to  state 
the  problem  most  clearly  and  to  demand  a  thorough  revision  of 
our  educational  ideals  and  practices  in  rural  communities. 

One  of  the  most  searching  and  constructive  discussions  of  this 
problem  which  has  yet  appeared  is  here  given,  partly  for  its  in- 
trinsic value  and  partly  as  corroborative  of  the  main  thesis  of 
this  volume,  that  specialized  education  will  increase  rather  than 
diminish  general  education,  and  will  thus  insure  a  wider  distribu- 
tion of  general  intelligence. 

299 


300       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Education  for  the  Iowa  Farm  Boy  ^ 

By  H.  C.  Wallace 

Associate  Editor  of  Wallace's  Farmer 

In  recent  years  the  higher  prices  of  agricultural  products  and  the 
consequent  higher  cost  of  living  have  turned  the  attention  of  the 
nation,  and  especially  of  the  residents  of  cities,  sharply  toward 
the  need  for  better  farming  and  bigger  crops.  There  has  been 
widespread  complaining  against  the  farmer.  He  has  for  genera- 
tions been  making  a  bare  living  for  his  family.  He  has  sold  the 
fruits  of  his  labor,  not  for  what  he  might  determine  to  be  a  fair 
price  after  making  due  allowance  for  the  money  invested  and  the 
labor  expended,  but  for  what  the  buyer  has  been  willing  to  pay. 
If  the  average  farmer  has  made  money,  it  has  been  by  the  work 
of  his  children,  by  saving,  —  through  the  practice  of  the  strictest 
economy,  —  and  by  the  increase  in  the  value  of  his  land  through 
the  growth  in  population.  If  the  average  farmer  should  deduct 
from  his  gross  earnings  a  fair  interest  on  the  money  invested  in 
land  and  equipment,  make  a  reasonable  allowance  for  deprecia- 
tion of  equipment,  and  pay  a  fair  price  for  all  the  labor  used 
aside  from  his  own,  he  would  have  for  his  own  labor,  during  a 
ten-year  period,  less  than  the  wages  of  the  clerk,  the  stenogra- 
pher, or  the  freight  brakeman.  Without  analyzing  this  condition, 
the  bright  farm  boy  has  recognized  its  existence  ;  hence  the  drift 
from  the  farm  to  town,  and  to  new  sections  where  cheap  land  can 
be  had,  thus  duplicating  for  him  the  opportunities  of  his  father. 

With  the  coming  of  the  higher  prices  for  agricultural  products 
came,  as  I  have  said,  widespread  complaint  against  the  farmer. 
From  the  humble  toiler,  thankfully  receiving  whatever  the  buyer 
saw  fit  to  give  him,  and  with  his  much-talked-of  independence 
as  his  chief  asset,  he  became,  almost  overnight,  the  strong  mer- 
chant, asking  and  receiving  a  fair  price  for  his  products,  and 

1  A  paper  read  before  the  Prairie  Club  of  Des  Moines  on  December  17, 1910. 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  30 1 

/ 
finally  ^^ached  the  point  where  he  was  not  compelled  to  haul 

his  crops  direct  from  the  fields  to  the  market  to  pay  accumulated 
debts.  The  buyer  resented  this  change.  He  had  so  long  looked 
upon  the  farmer  as  a  poorly  paid  laborer,  thankful  for  the  oppor- 
tunity to  serve,  that  his  changed  condition  seemed  the  basest 
ingratitude.  And  so  from  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men  came 
suggestions  of  ways  to  enable  the  farmer  to  produce  larger  crops, 
in  order  that  they  might  be  sold  cheaper.  The  need  for  agri- 
cultural education  has  become  generally  recognized.  Every  city 
consumer  will  agree  that  the  farmer  must  be  educated,  not  so 
much  because  he  wants  to  help  the  farmer,  but  in  the  hope  that 
educated  farmers  may  mean  cheaper  farm  products.  Men  in  all 
walks  of  life  have  been  active  in  this  propaganda  for  agricultural 
education.  Railroads  have  run  special  trains,  carrying  instruc- 
tion in  farming,  and  have  invited  the  farmers  to  come  and  hear. 
Railroad  presidents  have  made  speeches  in  public  and  have 
printed  pamphlets  for  the  farmer  to  read.  Bankers  have  sub- 
scribed for  cheap  agricultural  papers  by  the  hundred  and  dis- 
tributed them  free,  instead  of  calendars  and  chromos.  Merchants 
have  offered  prizes  for  the  biggest  pumpkins  and  the  largest  ears 
of  corn.  State  fairs  have  offered  free  scholarships  at  the  agri- 
cultural colleges.  A  great  western  university  has  established  an 
agricultural  guild  and  arranged  with  the  owners  of  country 
estates  to  permit  city  youths  to  work  on  them,  so  that  if  worst 
comes  to  worst  the  production  on  the  farm  may  continue.  Mag- 
azine writers  have  told  of  the  romance  of  farming,  of  the  success 
of  bonanza  farmers  ;  and  the  magazines  are  full  of  pictures  of 
the  farmer  in  his  automobile,  driving  from  one  field  to  another, 
inspecting  his  crops.  The  governor  and  industrial  agent  of  a 
great  state  have  started  a  back-to-the-farm  movement,  and  pro- 
pose to  locate  city  laboring  men  on  twenty-acre  plots.  City  school- 
teachers are  taking  homesteads  in  sections  where  the  normal 
rainfall  is  less  than  twelve  inches,  and  where  the  only  way  to 


302       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

get  milk  from  a  native  cow  is  to  rope  and  throw  her  and  take  it 
away  by  force. 

And  the  improvement  of  farming  is  a  subject  which  may  well 
challenge  the  attention  of  the  American  people,  irrespective  of 
their  occupation  or  avocation.  With  the  growth  of  our  population 
there  must  soon  come  an  improvement  in  our  methods  of  farming. 
We  have  now  occupied  practically  all  of  our  crop-producing  land. 
We  have  heretofore  been  a  nation  of  soil  robbers.  As  long  as 
there  was  new  land  to  be  possessed,  we  worried  little  about  wasted 
fertility.  While  we  were  harvesting  the  fertility  of  the  ages,  crop 
production  was  measured  largely  by  the  work  expended.  The 
most  successful  farmer  was  he  who  could  work  and  work  his 
dependents  longest  and  hardest.  But  when  successive  crops  have 
taken  out  of  the  soil  the  fertility  which  is  immediately  available, 
the  farmer  who  grows  a  crop  that  will  bring  him  more  than  it  costs 
must  learn  how  to  unlock  the  reserve  store  which  nature  yields 
only  to  him  who  has  studied  her  laws.  He  must  use  brains  as  well 
as  strength.  He  must  learn  how  to  restore  the  fertility  which  he 
took  away.  He  must  learn  the  laws  of  breeding  and  feeding  live 
stock.  He  must  learn  how  to  grow  larger  crops  on  less  land.  He 
must  learn  how  to  combat  the  various  insect  pests  which  multiply 
under  ignorant  farming.  He  must  learn  how  to  protect  his  crops 
from  the  ravages  of  various  low  forms  of  parasitic  plant  life.  These 
things  are  not  to  be  learned  from  the  so-called  practical  farmer. 
However  skillful  he  may  become  in  the  art  of  farming,  he  can  learn 
the  science  only  from  the  scientist  or  from  the  scientific  farmer. 

Hence  the  education  of  the  farmer  becomes  a  matter  of  the 
greatest  moment  to  the  nation  at  large.  Our  population  is  in- 
creasing and  must  be  fed.  Our  land  is  practically  occupied.  Within 
a  comparatively  few  years,  as  we  measure  time  in  a  large  way, 
we  must  increase  our  crop  yields  or  go  hungry.  More  intensive 
farming  in  the  way  of  better  cultural  methods  will  temporarily 
increase  the  yield  per  acre.    The  labor  now  put  upon  a  quarter 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  303 

section  will,  if  intelligently  expended  on  eighty  acres,  give  as 
great  or  greater  returns.  But  improvement  in  the  art  of  "  tickling 
the  earth  "  is  but  a  temporary  expedient.  The  store  of  fertility  in 
the  soil  is  limited.  If  taken  away  year  by  year,  and  nothing 
returned,  it  will  be  exhausted  as  certainly  as  is  the  vein  of  coal. 
Improved  cultivation  alone  acts  upon  the  soil  as  a  stimulant  does 
upon  the  human  organism  —  it  exhausts  its  strength  all  the 
more  rapidly.  The  great  problem  with  which  as  a  nation  we  are 
confronted  is  not  alone  that  of  growing  greater  crops,  but  of  do- 
ing this  and  at  the  same  time  so  conserving  the  soil  that  we, 
and  our  sons  after  us,  may  continue  to  grow  them,  and  this  prob- 
lem can  be  solved  only  by  the  educated,  scientific  farmer. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  paper,  therefore,  to  consider  what 
we  have  been  and  are  now  doing  to  educate  the  boys  and  young 
men  who  are  to  be  the  farmers  of  the  future,  and  to  tentatively 
suggest  some  things  we  should  do  hereafter,  if  we  work  out  this 
problem  as  satisfactorily  as  we  have  heretofore  worked  out  other 
problems  of  similar  importance.  To  this  end  I  propose  to  outline 
as  briefly  as  possible  the  general  methods  of  education  followed 
in  some  advanced  foreign  countries,  and  contrast  them  with  our 
own ;  second,  to  deal  with  secondary  agricultural  education  in 
foreign  countries ;  third,  to  discuss  the  condition  in  this  state  and 
offer  some  suggestions  as  to  the  methods  by  which  it  might  be 
improved.  My  information  on  the  school  systems  of  foreign 
countries  has  been  gathered  and  appropriated  from  a  general 
reading  of  everything  I  have  been  able  to  find  bearing  on  the 
subject.  The  best  single  work  I  have  found  is  "  Making  of  a 
Citizen,"  by  Robert  Edward  Hughes,  of  Oxford. 

The  German  System 

As  one  writer  has  put  it,  the  German  school  system  has  long 
been  the  admiration  of  the  pedagogic  world.  It  is  designed  not 
alone  to  impart  knowledge,  but  to  make  citizens.  It  is  a  national 


304 


EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 


interest.  The  system  is  bureaucratic.  A  minister  of  ecclesiastical 
education  and  medical  affairs  directs  the  educational  work  of  the 
nation.  The  school  officials  are  officers  of  the  state.  They  appoint 
and  dismiss  teachers.  They  prescribe  what  is  to  be  taught.  The 
people  at  large  have  nothing  to  say  concerning  the  manner  in 
which  the  school  shall  be  conducted.  Education  is  compulsory, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  fully  90  per  cent  of  the  total  enroll- 
ment is  daily  in  attendance  at  school.  Going  to  school  is  a  national 
habit.  Parents  are  held  strictly  accountable  for  the  attendance  of 
their  children,  and  are  fined  for  each  day  the  child  is  absent 
without  good  reason.  If  the  fine  is  not  paid,  they  are  sent  to  jail. 
The  schools  are  very  largely  supported  by  the  state.  City  schools 
receive  about  one  third  of  the  amount  required  to  conduct  them, 
the  amount  var^'ing  in  proportion  as  the  city  is  able  to  pay. 
Country  schools  receive  about  two  thirds  of  their  total  expense 
from  the  state.  The  atmosphere  of  the  schools  is  distinctly  re- 
ligious. In  no  country  are  the  teachers  so  thoroughly  prepared. 
Teaching  in  Germany  is  a  profession,  and  the  teacher  ranks  high 
in  the  social  scale.  It  is  said  that  one  fifth  of  the  teachers  are  the 
sons  of  teachers.  One  third  of  them  come  from  the  agricultural 
people.  The  German  teacher  is  trained  through  a  period  of  six 
years,  first  as  a  pupil  in  the  normal  preparatory  school,  then  for 
three  years  a  student  in  the  normal  college,  and  before  being 
placed  in  full  charge  of  classes  must  undergo  a  course  of  prepara- 
tory training  in  actual  school  work,  as  an  assistant  teacher  and 
under  the  direction  of  a  head  teacher,  and  subject  to  frequent  in- 
spection and  examination  by  government  inspectors.  The  result 
is  that  German  instruction  is  thorough  and  consistent.  Being  an 
officer  of  the  state,  the  German  teacher  is  pensioned  after  ten 
years  of  service,  if  he  retires  because  of  disability,  and  is  retired 
on  a  full-service  pension  at  the  age  of  sixty-five. 

The  system  of  secondary  schools  is  complete,  and  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  the  various  classes  of  German   society.    Three 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION     305 


secondary  schools  have  six-year  courses  and  three  others  nine- 
year  ccjurses.  The  work  covered  in  the  nine-year  schools  is  equal 
to  the  courses  of  many  leading  universities  of  other  lands.  The 
teachers  in  the  secondary  schools  of  Germany  are  said  to  be 
the  finest  body  of  teachers  in  the  world.  They  must  first  com- 
plete the  nine  years'  course ;  second,  they  must  attend  for  three 
years  in  the  university;  third,  they  must  meet  special  state 
examinations.  After  having  done  this,  they  are  assigned  to 
certain  secondary  schools  under  the  care  of  the  director.  During 
the  first  year  they  do  not  teach  at  all,  but  watch  the  teachers 
at  their  work.  Next  they  are  permitted  to  teach  two  hours 
weekly  in  the  presence  of  the  director  and  regular  teachers. 
Then  comes  the  trial  year,  during  which  they  teach  regularly,  a 
part  of  the  time  under  the  eye  of  a  director.  They  then  prepare 
a  written  report  of  progress  made,  and  this  report,  together 
with  that  of  the  director  upon  the  candidate's  work,  is  sent  to 
the  provincial  board,  which  appoints  the  candidate  to  a  perma- 
nent place.  The  supply  of  teachers  is  plentiful,  and  very  often 
the  candidate  must  wait  for  some  little  time  before  securing  his 
position.  Having  once  got  into  the  work,  however,  his  tenure 
is  secure.  With  such  a  system  and  with  such  teachers  it  is 
not  surprising  that  the  Germans  are  in  many  respects  the  best 
educated  people  in  the  world. 

The  French  System 

Like  the  German,  the  French  system  of  education  is  national 
in  its  character  and  bureaucratic  in  its  administration.  The  head 
is  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  who  has  about  him  an 
advisory  council  of  sixty  members.  Of  these,  three  fourths  are 
appointed  by  the  professors  and  teachers,  and  one  fourth  by 
the  president.  The  minister  of  public  instruction  keeps  in  very 
close  touch  with  the  work  of  the  schools  throughout  the  nation, 
through  ten  general  inspectors  and  a  large  number  of  primary 


306        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

inspectors,  who  make  their  headquarters  at  Paris,  The  system 
is  divided  into  seventeen  academies,  each  academy  being  com- 
posed of  the  local  university  and  all  the  secondary  and  primary 
schools  within  its  area.  These  academies  are  presided  over  by 
rectors,  appointed  by  the  president.  They  are  in  turn  divided 
into  departments,  with  a  civil  head,  the  prefect,  for  each  depart- 
ment. He  appoints  the  teachers  from  a  list  drawn  up  by  the 
academy  inspectors,  of  which  there  is  one  to  each  department. 
Under  this  inspector  are  the  primary  inspectors,  numbering  be- 
tween four  hundred  fifty  and  five  hundred,  each  one  having 
the  supervision  of  about  one  hundred  fifty  schools.  The  depart- 
mental council,  made  up  of  fourteen  members,  constitutes  the 
departmental  board  of  education.  This  council  is  composed  of 
four  counselors  elected  by  the  teachers,  the  directors  of  the  nor- 
mal training  college,  two  primary  inspectors  appointed  by  the 
minister  of  education,  and  two  male  and  two  female  primary 
teachers  elected  by  the  teachers  of  the  department.  This  council 
supervises  the  courses  of  study,  methods  of  instruction,  and  has 
general  supervision  of  the  schools.  The  people  have  little  to 
say  concerning  the  education  given  their  children.  Compulsory 
education  goes  to  the  extent  of  even  supervising  the  instruction 
given  children  in  private  schools  and  families  —  the  children 
under  special  teachers  at  home  being  examined  at  the  end  of  each 
year  by  a  committee,  of  which  the  primary  inspector  is  chairman  ; 
and  if  the  result  of  the  examination  is  not  satisfactory,  parents  are 
required  to  send  the  children  to  either  public  or  private  schools. 
This  system  is  not  followed  so  closely  now  as  some  years  ago. 
A  list  of  the  children  of  school  age  is  made  up  each  year,  and  if 
the  children  are  not  in  school,  or  if  a  reasonable  excuse  is  not  fur- 
nished for  absence,  the  parents  are  warned,  and  if  warned  twice 
within  a  year,  they  are  fined.  The  laws  concerning  the  employ- 
ment of  children  are  strict.  Nothing  is  permitted  to  come  be- 
tween a  child  and  his  opportunity  for  at  least  a  primary  education. 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  307 

The  state  pays  the  teachers  of  the  primary  and  infant 
schools,  of  the  higher  primary  and  manual-training  schools, 
and  of  the  normal  schools ;  also  it  pays  all  inspectors  and 
other  officials,  and  their  traveling  expenses.  The  department 
pays  a  certain  sum  per  annum  to  each  primary  inspector.  The 
state  contributes  from  50  to  70  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  main- 
taining the  public  primary  schools  and  in  some  cases  even  more. 
In  the  cities  the  cost  is  mostly  borne  by  the  municipality.  Be- 
tween six  and  seven  thousand  of  the  primary  schools  are  pro- 
vided with  gymnasiums,  and  nearly  one  thousand  have  workshops 
for  manual  training.  In  the  cities  practically  every  boys'  school 
is  provided  with  a  manual-training  workshop,  and  manual  train- 
ing is  compulsory.  In  the  neighborhood  of  sixty  thousand  pri- 
mary schools  have  school  gardens.  The  nation  controls  the 
secondary  schools  as  completely  as  the  primary.  There  are 
two  principal  secondary  schools  in  France  —  the  lyc^e  and  the 
Communal  College.  Children  enter  the  lyc^e  at  eight  years  and 
graduate  at  eighteen,  with  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  France.  Those  who  wish  to  do  so  remain  for  two 
years  longer,  and  thus  obtain  exemption  from  two  years'  mili- 
tary service.  The  work  in  the  lycee  is  absolutely  regulated  by 
the  state,  and  is  uniform  throughout  all  of  the  schools.  The 
Communal  College  is  a  local  institution,  although  the  state  con- 
tributes materially  to  its  support. 

As  in  Germany,  the  teachers  in  France  are  employees  of  the 
state.  The  preparation  of  teachers  is  of  the  same  general 
nature  as  in  Germany,  but  not  so  thorough.  The  requirements, 
so  far  as  mental  equipment  is  concerned,  are  strict,  but  there 
is  less  attention  given  to  the  ability  of  the  teacher  to  teach.  The 
teacher's  promotion  depends,  however,  upon  his  individual  abil- 
ity, and  there  is  less  difference  in  the  wages  paid  teachers  in 
classes.  They  are  entitled  to  a  pension  at  sixty  years  of  age, 
and  in  case  of  death  a  certain  portion  of  this  pension  passes  on 


o 


08       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 


to  the  widow.    The  pension  fund  is  accumulated  in  large  part 
by  a  deduction  of  5  per  cent  per  annum  from  the  teacher's  salary. 

T/ie  English  System 

The  English  nation  was  the  last  of  the  great  nations  to 
admit  the  obligation  or  the  desirability  of  the  state  to  educate 
or  even  partially  educate  its  youth.  Not  until  1870  were  there 
any  state  schools  in  England.  Education  was  secured  entirely 
at  private  schools,  some  of  which,  however,  received  financial 
aid  from  the  government.  The  educational  act  of  1870,  and 
those  which  followed,  resulted  in  placing  schools  within  reach  of 
practically  all  the  children  in  England  and  Wales.  The  schools 
are  controlled  entirely  by  the  communities  in  which  they  are 
located,  but  certain  conditions  are  imposed  before  they  can 
secure  funds  from  the  Board  of  Education.  The  law  requires 
every  child  between  the  years  of  five  and  fourteen  to  attend 
every  session  of  the  school  unless  he  is  receiving  instruction 
elsewhere  or  is  exempt  because  twelve  years  of  age  and  of  a 
standard  proficiency ;  or  thirteen  years  of  age  and  has  made, 
for  five  consecutive  years,  three  hundred  fifty  attendances  per 
annum.  There  are  further  exemptions  in  the  case  of  country 
children.  The  percentage  of  attendance  has  been  steadily  in- 
creasing, the  average  for  children  over  seven  years  of  age 
running  close  to  90  per  cent.  When  the  educational  act  was 
passed,  the  number  of  children  in  the  schools  was  less  than  8 
per  cent  of  the  population.  The  number  now  is  nearly  20  per  cent. 
Between  eight  and  ten  thousand  savings  banks  are  established  at 
the  primary  schools  and  about  the  same  number  of  school  libraries. 

The  English  teachers  are  of  four  different  classes  :  certificated 
teachers,  assistant  teachers,  additional  teachers,  and  pupil  teachers. 

The  certificated  teachers  hold  their  certificates  from  the  Board 
of  Education  ;  these  certificates  are  for  life,  and  these  teachers 
are  entitled  to  a  pension  at  sixty-five  years  of  age. 


"^-eONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION     309 

Assistant  teachers  are  those  who  have  passed  certain  ex- 
aminations but  have  not  had  normal-school  training.  The  ex- 
amination is  one  held  by  the  government  for  the  selection  of 
candidates  for  training  colleges. 

Additional  teachers  are  those  who  have  had  no  professional 
training  of  any  sort.  They  are  young  women  approved  by  the 
government  inspector  without  examination. 

Pupil  teachers  are  engaged  by  the  school  management  and 
are  fifteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age.  They  teach  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  head  teachers  and  receive  suitable  in- 
struction while  teaching. 

The  pension  fund  is  made  up  of  contributions  by  the  teachers, 
supplemented  by  the  government.  These  contributions  are  used 
to  purchase  an  annuity  at  retiring  age,  which  averages  some- 
thing over  three  hundred  twenty  dollars  for  male  teachers  and 
two  hundred  ten  dollars  for  females. 

From  the  pedagogic  viewpoint  the  educational  systems  of 
Germany  and  France  are  admirable.  They  are  well  administered, 
economical,  and  efficient.  There  is  no  lost  motion.  In  these 
countries,  and  in  England  as  well,  the  lines  of.  class  are  firmly 
drawn,  and  the  educational  systems  are  devised  to  give  the  youth 
of  each  particular  class  the  kind  of  knowledge  and  early  training 
which  will  make  them  most  useful  for  service  in  that  class.  The 
life  work  of  the  youth  in  any  particular  class  is  determined  at 
an  early  age,  and  his  schooling  is  such  as  to  fit  him,  so  far  as 
possible,  for  that  particular  work.  The  opportunity  for  the  boy 
of  one  class  to  break  through  the  barriers  into  the  class  above 
him  are  limited,  and  hedged  about  in  every  way,  and  the  educa- 
tional systems  do  little  to  break  down  these  barriers.  On  this 
subject  Dr.  Andrew  S.  Draper,  commissioner  of  education  of 
.  New  York,  says : 

"'  The  English  purpose  would  have  every  English  child  read 
and  write  and  work.    England  has  simple  but  effective  elemental 


3IO       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

schools  for  the  peasant  class.  All  peasant  children  go  to  them. 
Although  they  know  nothing  of  American  opportunities,  the  per- 
centage of  illiteracy  is  lower  than  in  our  American  states.  Of 
course  England  has  schools  for  the  higher  classes,  but  there  is  no 
educational  mixing  of  classes  and  no  articulation  or  continuity  of 
work.  The  controlling  influence  in  English  politics  is  distinctly 
opposed  to  universalizing  education  through  fear  of  unsettling 
the  status  and  letting  loose  the  ambition  of  the  serving  classes. 

"So  it  is  also  in  France.  Notwithstanding  the  republican 
form  of  government,  the  thought  of  a  thousand  years  is  con- 
trolling. The  children  of  the  masses  are  trained  for  service,  and 
humble  service,  though  possibly  somewhat  higher  than  across 
the  Channel.  They  are  trained  for  examinations  and  for  routine 
rather  than  for  power. 

"  There  is  more  to  admire  in  the  German  purpose  and  plan, 
for  ambition  and  determination  are  not  lacking  in  the  nation, 
and  the  kaiser  knows  that  the  material  strength  and  the  military 
power  of  the  German  Empire  rest  upon  the  intelligence  of  the 
German  masses  and  the  productivity  of  German  labor." 

The  American  System 

The  American  system,  or  lack  of  system,  as  some  are  dis- 
posed to  regard  it,  could  exist  only  in  such  a  country  as  America. 
While  the  national  government  has,  especially  since  the  middle 
of  the  last  century,  taken  an  active  part  in  encouraging  educa- 
tional work,  and  has  from  time  to  time  given  large  tracts  of  land 
and  made  large  money  appropriations  for  educational  purposes, 
its  part  has  been  to  encourage,  not  to  direct  or  control.  Through 
the  Bureau  of  Education  the  nation  collects  a  vast  amount  of 
helpful  information,  and  its  influence  in  educational  matters  is 
steadily  growing  —  not  through  any  additional  powers  which 
may  have  been  given  it,  but  through  recognition,  by  those  who 
bear  the  responsibility,  of  its  ability  to  help  them. 


V^CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION     311 

In  the  founding  of  this  nation  there  was  no  recognition  of 
the  need  of  general  education.  That  came  with  the  working 
out  of  democratic  government,  and  it  came  slowly.  Not  until 
some  time  after  the  Constitution  was  adopted  did  our  forbears 
begin  to  see  that  the  instruction  of  the  youth  of  the  land  was  a 
matter  which  must  engage  their  earnest  attention.  But  when 
they  were  once  squared  away  to  the  real  task  before  them,  when 
it  was  finally  settled  that  this  would  be  a  government  by  the 
people,  when  it  was  determined  that  the  citizen  was  the  sov- 
ereign, they  were  not  long  in  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
sovereign  must  know  something  if  he  was  to  rule  intelligently  ; 
that  he  must  be  educated.  And  as  all  citizens  were  equally 
sovereigns,  so  all  must  have  equal  opportunities  so  far  as  the 
state  was  concerned.  And  so  it  came  about  that  as  the  people 
pushed  west  and  new  states  were  formed,  the  duty  of  the  state 
to  educate  its  youth  was  written  into  the  constitution,  and  the 
subject  of  education  became  more  and  more  important  in  the 
eyes  of  the  people.  With  each  succeeding  generation  the  de- 
sire of  the  parents  that  their  children  shall  have  the  education 
which  they  failed  to  get  has  grown  until  it  has  becomfe  almost 
a  passion. 

Without  central  control  or  direction  it  was  inevitable  that  there 
should  be  no  general  educational  system.  Each  state  evolved 
the  plan  which  seemed  best  suited  to  its  needs  and  conditions. 
In  some  states  we  have  the  school  district  as  the  unit,  the  dis- 
tricts varying  in  size  according  to  the  density  of  population.  In 
others  the  township  is  the  unit.  In  still  others,  more  partic- 
ularly the  Southern  States,  the  county. 

The  full  time  —  indeed,  much  more  than  the  time  permitted 
for  a  paper  of  this  sort  —  could  be  consumed  in  tracing  the  de- 
velopment of  our  public-school  system.  There  were  many  efforts 
to  engraft  upon  it  the  French  system  of  centralized  control  in 
some  of  its  important  features.   Jefferson  suggested   such  a 


312       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

scheme  for  Virginia  in  1817.  At  least  one  state  and  possibly 
others  provided  by  law  for  some  of  the  essential  features  of  a 
thorough  state  system.  All  of  these  efforts  failed.  Our  systems 
of  secondary  education,  as  we  now  have  them  in  our  splendid 
high  schools,  have  been  developed  only  in  the  last  sixty  or 
seventy  years.  Prior  to  that  time  secondary  education  had  to  be 
acquired  in  the  academies  which  succeeded  the  old  grammar 
schools,  the  latter  being  mostly  allied  to  some  particular  college. 
These  grammar  schools,  and  academies  as  well,  were  conducted 
for  the  purpose  of  preparing  students  for  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities ;  they  were  almost  entirely  schools  for  boys,  and  natu- 
rally for  those  boys  whose  parents  were  in  better  than  average 
circumstances.  They  were,  to  a  considerable  extent,  therefore, 
class  schools,  entirely  different  from  our  democratic  high  schools. 
Not  until  very  recent  years  has  the  education  of  the  farmer 
attracted  the  attention  even  of  leaders  in  educational  thought. 
Back  in  the  sixties  Justin  Morrill  secured  the  enactment  of  the 
law  which  has  always  been  known  by  his  name,  establishing  the 
land-grant  agricultural  colleges.  But  there  has  been  no  general 
or  even  local  plan  for  giving  the  boys  of  the  farm  a  secondary 
education  which  would  prepare  them  for  these  colleges.  In  their 
earlier  years  the  requirements  for  admission  to  the  state  agricul- 
tural colleges  were  not  so  high,  and  the  bright  boy  from  the 
country  was  able  to  secure  admission  —  if  not  to  the  regular 
college  classes,  at  least  to  the  preparatory  classes,  which  his 
strong  young  body  and  vigorous  mind  enabled  him  to  wade 
through  in  a  short  time.  As  time  went  on,  however,  the  agricul- 
tural colleges  became  more  ambitious,  and  gradually  raised  their 
standards,  until  now  from  Iowa  east  the  boy  who  secures  ad- 
mission to  the  freshman  class  must  bring  with  him  either  a  cer- 
tificate from  an  accredited  four-year  high  school,  or  must  be  able 
to  pass  examinations  which  are  practically  equivalent  to  the  work 
of  a  high  school  of  that  class.    We  have,  in  short,  gradually 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION     313 

built  up  the  walls  surrounding  the  agricultural  colleges,  and 
neglected,  at  the  same  time,  to  provide,  within  convenient  reach, 
ladders  by  which  they  might  be  scaled  by  the  boy  from  the  farm. 
This  compels  the  farm  boy  to  spend  three  or  four  years  in  the 
town  or  city  high  school  before  he  can  prepare  himself  to  enter 
the  agricultural  college.  The  training  he  gets  at  the  average 
high  school  is  not  the  sort  of  training  which  is  likely  to  keep 
his  thoughts  directed  toward  the  farm.  He  goes  with  the  ambi- 
tion to  excel  in  his  studies.  He  too  often  discovers  that  excel- 
lence in  studies  is  not  the  most  honorable  accomplishment  in 
the  eyes  of  the  student  body.  He  finds  that  the  "  shark  "  is 
very  often  considered  a  freak ;  that  the  energy  and  enthusiasm 
which  should  be  conserved  for  those  things  which  make  for  effi- 
ciency in  life,  for  lack  of  better  direction,  find  an  outlet  in  one- 
sided athletics  ;  that  the  student  body  is  divided  up  into  classes 
and  sets  by  fraternities,  or,  if  these  arc  forbidden,  —  as  they  are 
now  in  many  high  schools,  —  by  clubs  which  form  their  equiva- 
lent ;  and  that  too  often  foolish  fathers  and  silly  mothers  encour- 
age immature  society  life.  It  requires  a  boy  of  more  than  ordinary 
steadfastness  to  pass  through  four  years  of  this  sort  of  thing 
without  being  weaned  away  from  the  farm.  The  number  which 
does  finally  reach  the  college  is  very  small,  and  the  number  that 
goes  back  to  the  farm  from  the  college  still  smaller.  Even  if 
this  condition  did  not  exist,  —  if  we  had  an  easy  road  from  the 
farm  to  the  college,  —  we  should  not  have  made  any  material 
progress  in  giving  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  agriculture 
to  the  men  who  are  to  cultivate  the  farms  of  Iowa.  Not  one 
fourth  of  one  per  cent  of  our  future  farmers  can  ever  be  ex- 
pected to  go  through  the  agricultural  college.  If  we  are  to  give 
agricultural  instruction  to  the  boys  who  are  to  do  the  farming, 
it  must  be  given  in  local  schools.  And  the  future  of  Iowa  agri- 
culture will  be  determined  by  the  wisdom  with  which  we  work 
out  this  problem. 


314       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Agricultural  Teaching  in  Foreign  Countries 

What  follows  is  a  very  much  abridged  quotation  from  a 
monograph  on  agricultural  education,  by  James  Ralph  Jewell, 
published  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  : 

"A  thorough  and  comprehensive  system  of  agricultural  educa- 
tion is  of  more  importance  to  France  than  to  many  other  coun- 
tries, because,  owing  to  the  law  of  divided  inheritance,  most  of 
the  sons  of  French  peasants  will  one  day  have  strips  of  land  of 
their  own.  France  has  an  excellent  agricultural  system,  and  the 
agricultural  schools  which  the  government  ranks  as  secondary 
are  really  on  a  par  with  the  higher  institutions  of  several  other 
countries.  Instead  of  maintaining  a  large  number  of  small  sec- 
ondary schools,  France  supports  three  large  national  agricul- 
tural schools  in  widely  separated  districts.  The  course  of  study 
covers  two  years,  and  is  arranged  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  va- 
rious sections  of  the  country.  One  school  is  devoted  especially 
to  vine  and  olive  culture,  sheep  farming,  the  breeding  of  silk- 
worms, and  the  making  of  wine  and  olive  oil.  Another  pays 
especial  attention  to  cider  making,  pasturing,  farming  on  the 
share  system,  and  the  agricultural  products  of  most  importance 
in  western  France.  Another  deals  especially  with  artificial  pastur- 
age, cultivation  of  cereals,  stock  breeding,  and  the  wine  indus- 
tries of  northern  France.  The  students  of  all  these  schools 
must  spend  their  vacations  on  farms  and  report  what  takes  place 
there.  There  are,  in  addition,  four  special  schools,  one  devoted 
to  horticulture,  one  to  agricultural  industries,  one  to  dairy  farm- 
ing, and  the  colonial  agricultural  school  at  Tunis. 

"  In  Belgium  there  are  both  agricultural  schools  and  agricultural 
sections.  The  schools  give  exclusively  professional  instruction, 
while  in  the  sections  a  part  of  the  time  is  given  to  the  general 
education  of  the  students.  The  schools  have  a  three-year  course 
with  one  exception,  where  the  course  is  but  two  years.  They  are  for 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION     315 

farmers'  sons  who  intend  to  continue  in  their  fathers'  vocations. 
Tuition  is  free,  and  the  state  gives  scholarships  to  deserving 
students,  all  of  whom  must  have  been  through  the  elementary 
schools.  There  are  eighteen  of  these  schools  in  Belgium,  and  a 
government  official  says  of  them  :  '  The  greatest  service  these 
schools  have  rendered  has  been  to  raise  the  agricultural  profession 
to  an  interesting  art,  which  fascinates  the  learner,  and  which  he 
never  desires  to  abandon.'  In  the  agricultural  sections  young 
farmers  may  get  a  general  as  well  as  a  professional  education. 
Thirty  public  and  private  secondary  schools  give  short  courses 
in  agriculture  and  horticulture,  one  each  week  through  the  year. 
There  are  four  agricultural  sections  for  girls  and  several  high 
schools  of  agriculture,  with  courses  of  at  least  two  years,  for  girls. 
There  are  four  dairy  schools  for  young  men  in  various  provinces, 
with  four  months'  courses,  to  provide  managers  for  dairies. 
There  are  also  ten  traveling  dairy  schools  for  women,  giving  four 
months'  courses  of  a  notably  high  grade.  Two  hours  a  day,  six 
days  a  week,  are  devoted  to  theoretical  instruction  and  three 
hours  daily  to  practical  work. 

"In  Holland  there  are  six  permanent  winter  schools  of  agri- 
culture and  horticulture  in  session  from  October  to  April,  and 
a  two  years'  course  of  study.  They  are  intended  for  the  sons  of 
small  farmers  and  market  gardeners.  There  are  also  four  horti- 
cultural schools. 

"  Finland  supports  secondary  agricultural  schools  at  two  dif- 
ferent points,  as  well  as  at  the  University  of  Helsingfors.  These 
courses  are  for  two  years. 

"  In  Denmark  there  are  numerous  agricultural  trade  schools, 
which  have  grown  largely  during  the  past  ten  years.  Since  1892 
the  state  has  granted  funds  to  any  people's  high  school  which 
teaches  agriculture  and  gardening,  the  limit  being  seven  hundred 
dollars  annually  to  any  one  school.  The  agricultural  schools  and 
the  high  schools  of  Denmark  are  so  closely  connected  that  in 


3l6       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  dis- 
tinguish between  them. 

"In  Sweden  there  are  two  agricultural  high  schools,  each  with 
a  two  years'  course. 

"In  every  province  in  Germany  there  is  an  agricultural  school. 

"In  Switzerland  there  are  four  theoretical  and  practical  schools 
of  agriculture,  the  theoretical  work  being  given  during  the  winter, 
so  as  to  leave  the  summer  for  outdoor  work.  In  addition,  winter 
courses  are  given  for  those  unable  to  attend  the  full  course. 

"In  Portugal  there  are  two  secondary  agricultural  schools. 

"In  Japan  a  secondary  agricultural  school  may  be  established  by 
any  city,  town,  or  village  when  the  local  finances  permit,  without 
detriment  to  the  elementary  schools  of  the  place,  and  the  govern- 
ment gives  a  subsidy  to  each  such  school  running  for  five  years. 
In  1904  there  were  fifty-seven  of  these  schools,  with  7146  pupils, 
and  the  number  has  rapidly  increased  since  then.  The  course  of 
study  is  usually  one  of  three  years.  There  are  three  higher  tech- 
nical schools  of  agriculture,  which  devote  their  energies  to  special 
lines,  with  courses  of  three  years  in  length." 

Secondary  Agricultural  Education  in  the  United  States 

In  the  United  States  we  have  made  barely  a  beginning  in  sec- 
ondary education  for  farm  boys.    Condensing  again  from  Jewell : 

"Agricultural  high  schools  supported  at  least  in  part  by  the 
state  are  in  successful  operation  in  Wisconsin,  Alabama,  and 
California.  In  1902  the  first  two  of  four  county  high  schools 
in  Wisconsin  were  opened  at  Menominee  and  Wausau,  the  state 
paying  a  substantial  share  of  the  first  cost  and  afterwards  a  sum 
not  to  exceed  half  the  amount  actually  expended  in  such  schools. 
In  connection  with  the  school  at  Menominee  is  a  county  train- 
ing school  for  rural  teachers,  which  gives  the  county  a  body  of 
teachers  fairly  well  trained  for  rudimentary  instruction  in  agri- 
culture.   The  annual  teachers'  institute  is  made  a  part  of  the 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION     317 

agricultural  summer  school,  and  the  teachers  are  given  special 
instruction  in  agriculture,  manual  training,  and  domestic  econ- 
omy, instead  of  reviewing  the  common  branches  over  and  over 
again.  To  operate  one  of  these  schools  costs  the  farmer  twenty 
cents  on  each  one  thousand  dollars  of  his  assessment.  There 
are  now  five  such  schools  in  Wisconsin,  and  twenty-one  county 
training  schools  for  teachers  in  which  agriculture  is  taught. 
In  1896  the  legislature  of  Alabama  established  an  agricultural 
school  in  each  congressional  district  of  the  state,  —  nine  in  all, 
—  in  which  agriculture  is  taught  in  the  seventh  to  tenth  grades 
inclusive.  Over  two  thousand  boys  and  girls  attend  these  schools 
annually,  and  a  larger  proportion  of  them  are  doing  definite 
work  in  agriculture  now  than  ever  before. 

"In  1906  a  law  was  enacted  in  Georgia  providing  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  secondary  school  of  agriculture  in  each  of  the 
eleven  congressional  districts,  the  schools  to  be  branches  of  the 
State  College  of  Agriculture.  The  annual  income  of  each  of  these 
new  schools  is  estimated  at  six  thousand  dollars,  but  the  locality 
securing  the  school  must  furnish  not  less  than  two  hundred  acres 
of  land  and  necessary  equipment  in  the  way  of  buildings,  live 
stock,  machinery,  farm  implements,  and  the  like.  Nine  separate 
buildings  are  contemplated  for  each  school.  The  course  of  study 
will  cover  four  years,  including  one  year  of  elementary-school 
work,  and  will  prepare  graduates  for  entrance  to  the  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture. 

"  Michigan,  in  1903,  established  ten  county  normal  training 
schools  for  rural  teachers,  in  which  instruction  in  elementary 
agriculture  is  given  during  the  spring  only,  so  that  it  really 
amounts  to  work  in  school  gardening  and  to  making  these 
teachers  somewhat  familiar  with  the  better  textbooks  on  agri- 
culture. There  are  now  forty-five  of  these  schools  in  Michigan. 
The  six  normal  schools  of  Missouri  give  each  year  a  good  course 
in  agriculture,  two  of  them  devoting  to  it  five  periods  a  week 


3l8       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

through  the  entire  year.  The  California  Polytechnic  School,  at 
San  Luis  Obispo,  a  state  institution  established  in  January,  1902, 
offers  secondary  courses  in  agriculture,  domestic  science,  and 
mechanics,  covering  a  period  of  three  years. 

"'  There  are  here  and  there  through  the  country  three  or  four 
private  secondary  schools  in  agriculture  maintained  without 
state  aid.  One  of  these  is  a  Catholic  school  at  San  Francisco. 
Another  is  the  Mount  Hermon  School,  founded  by  D.  L.  Moody, 
near  Northfield,  Massachusetts.  The  third  is  the  National  Farm 
School,  at  Doylestown,  Pennsylvania,  a  school  for  Jews ;  and 
here  and  there  through  the  country  city  high  schools  have 
developed  quite  strong  agricultural  courses. 

"  Minnesota  has  an  excellent  secondary  school  in  agriculture 
in  connection  with  her  State  Agricultural  College,  and  has  es- 
tablished another  at  Crookston,  in  the  northwest  part  of  the 
state,  which  offers  a  three  years'  course  of  six  months  each,  to 
which  students  from  the  country  are  admitted  without  examina- 
tion. Popular  short  courses  of  one  week  each  are  also  held  at 
this  school.    Ten  high  schools  give  instruction  in  agriculture. 

"'  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  many  other  states  are  rapidly 
consolidating  the  rural  schools,  grading  them,  and  introducing 
agricultural  instruction  in  the  higher  grades.  In  Indiana  eighty- 
two  of  the  ninety-two  counties  have  consolidated  schools. 

"'  Nebraska  has  5  normal  schools  which  give  instruction  in  agri- 
culture, and  103  high  schools  in  which  some  phases  of  the  sub- 
ject are  taught.  In  Ohio  there  are  now  47  township  and  39  city 
high  schools  which  teach  agriculture;  in  Missouri,  61  ;  in  Illi- 
nois, I T  ;  in  Indiana,  11." 

The  Condition  in  Iowa 

Iowa  is  the  greatest  all-round  agricultural  state  in  the 
Union.  In  intelligence,  thrift,  and  the  qualities  which  go  to 
make  good  citizenship,   her  people  are  believed  to  be  the  equal 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION     319 

of  the  people  of  any  other  state  and  the  superior  of  most.  But 
in  the  systematic  education  of  her  youth  she  is  far  behind  most 
other  states  north  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  Hne.  Only  the  length  of 
this  paper  enables  me  to  resist  the  temptation  to  discuss  the 
chaotic  condition  of  our  educational  system  in  general.  We 
have  about  12,000  rural  schools  in  Iowa,  and  Superintendent 
Riggs  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  more  than  2000  of 
them  never  enroll  more  than  ten  pupils  each  in  a  given  term, 
while  many  of  them  enroll  less  than  five.  Less  than  3000,  or 
about  25  per  cent,  enroll  more  than  twenty  pupils  in  any  given 
term.  And  enrollment  is  not  synonymous  with  attendance.  Our 
efforts  as  a  state  to  give  our  youth  the  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  agriculture  are  confined  to  the  work  done  through  the 
State  College  of  Agriculture.  In  a  few  counties  progressive 
county  superintendents  have  voluntarily  introduced  the  study 
of  com  and  other  grains,  and  some  of  the  simple  nature  studies, 
in  the  rural  schools.  The  pioneer  in  this  line  was  Cap.  Miller, 
of  Keokuk  County.  In  Page  County,  Miss  Jessie  Field  caught 
the  spirit  and  has  carried  this  work  still  further,  until  practi- 
cally every  rural  school  in  the  county  is  devoting  considerable 
time  each  week  to  studying  the  simpler  things  of  agriculture. 
O.  H.  Benson  is  doing  work  of  the  same  sort  in  Wright  County. 
In  other  counties  here  and  there,  scattered  over  the  state,  an 
occasional  real  teacher,  encouraged  by  some  progressive  farmer 
in  the  neighborhood,  has  taken  up  the  work.  Some  seven  or 
eight  high  schools  and  two  or  three  of  the  smaller  colleges  of 
the  state  have  inaugurated  some  agricultural  work. 

Nor  have  we  as  yet  taken  even  the  first  step  toward  remedy- 
ing this  unfortunate  condition.  While  many  of  our  people  and 
many  of  our  teachers  understand  our  shortcomings,  no  system- 
atic effort  has  been  made  toward  improvement.  While  other 
states  are  redirecting  their  rural  schools  and  educating  teachers 
to  take  charge  of  them,  we  are  doing  nothing  at  all  in  this 


320       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

direction,  except  that  the  Extension  Department  of  the  college 
has  held  one  summer  institute  for  country-school  teachers  in  a 
northwestern  county. 

The  work  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College  consists  of : 

First,  providing  various  four-year  courses  in  agriculture,  civil 
and  mechanical  engineering,  veterinary  science,  and  general  and 
domestic  science.  These  are  open  to  students  from  accredited 
high  schools,  or  to  those  who  can  pass  an  examination  of  the 
same  grade. 

Second,  a  special  two  years'  course  in  agriculture,  to  which 
are  admitted  students  who  cannot  meet  the  entrance  requirements 
to  the  regular  course. 

Third,  experimental  work  in  agriculture,  carried  on  by  the 
Experiment  Station,  which  is  supported  in  part  by  the 
national  government.  The  results  of  this  work  are  disseminated 
in  the  form  of  bulletins,  which  are  sent  free  to  residents  of  the 
state  who  apply  for  them. 

Fourth,  a  two  weeks'  course  in  agriculture,  open  to  boys  and 
men  of  any  age,  at  which  are  taught  corn  and  live-stock  judg- 
ing, dairying,  etc. 

Fifth,  extension  work  which  is  carried  on  by  a  special  corps 
of  instructors,  who  conduct  short  courses  of  one  week  each  in 
various  counties  of  the  state,  twenty-one  being  planned  for  this 
winter.  The  Extension  Department  also  publishes  bulletins 
written  in  popular  form  and  mans  the  special  trains  run  by 
the  railroads. 

The  Agricultural  College  graduated  its  first  class  in  1872. 
From  a  list  of  the  alumni  published  by  the  college  in  January, 
19 10,  and  which  therefore  does  not  include  the  class  of  19 10, 
I  find  that  a  total  of  362  have  been  graduated  with  degrees  of 
Bachelor  of  Agriculture  and  Bachelor  of  Scientific  Agriculture. 
Of  these  there  are  9  whose  addresses  are  not  known,  5  are 
dead,  212  reside  outside  of  Iowa,  and  1 36  reside  in  Iowa.   How 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION     32 1 

many  of  those  remaining  in  the  state  are  on  farms  or  engaged 
in  agricultural  pursuits  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain.  It  is 
of  course  true  that  many  times  this  number  of  students  have 
studied  agriculture  at  this  institution  one  or  more  terras.  The 
number  this  year,  reported  in  the  four-year  courses  in  the  agri- 
cultural department,  is  703,  while  there  are  134  in  the  special 
two-year  course.  Better  work  is  now  being  done  at  the  college 
than  at  any  previous  time,  but  the  figures  quoted  show  how  far 
short  it  falls  of  meeting  our  real  needs.  We  have  more  than 
two  hundred  thousand  farms  in  the  state  of  Iowa,  and  it  is  per- 
fectly evident  that  if  any  considerable  percentage  of  the  boys 
who  will  till  these  farms  in  the  future  are  to  have  even  a  partial 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  agriculture,  they  must  get  it  else- 
where than  at  the  State  Agricultural  College.  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that  the  total  enrollment  in  all  the  state  agricultural  colleges 
of  the  Union,  not  including  the  schools  for  colored  people  and 
not  including  the  short  and  special  courses,  was  61,662  for  the 
year  1909,  and  of  this  number  but  5873  were  enrolled  in  the 
agricultural  courses ;  or  about  9.^  per  cent  of  the  students  of 
the  agricultural  colleges  studied  agriculture. 

For  the  year  ending  June  30,  19 10,  our  State  Agricultural 
College  received  for  educational  support  $276,935  ;  for  fees 
and  tuition,  $58,244;  for  scholarship  fund,  $1350;  for  agri- 
cultural extension  work,  $32,000  ;  for  experiment  work,  $78,000; 
and  for  building  and  equipment  fund,  $163,815  ;  or  a  total  of 
over  $610,000  during  one  year.  During  the  last  five  years 
$718,526  was  expended  for  building  purposes,  included  in  this 
being  $329,934  for  a  hall  of  agriculture. 

The  work  of  the  short  course  which  is  held  at  the  college 
for  two  weeks  during  the  winter  vacation,  and  the  work  of  the 
Extension  Department,  is  designed  not  to  furnish  an  agricultural 
education,  but  to  give  to  the  practical  farmer  information  of  a 
quasi-scientific   character,  and  to  stimulate   interest  in  better 


322       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

farming.  The  Extension  Department  is  doing  by  word  of  mouth 
what  the  better  agricultural  papers  have  been  doing  for  years  in 
a  very  much  larger  way  by  the  printed  page.  The  state  is  get- 
ting very  much  greater  direct  material  benefit  for  the  money  it 
spends  in  this  extension  work  than  for  any  other  money  spent 
through  the  Agricultural  College.  This  benefit  comes  not  alone 
from  the  knowledge  imparted.  The  best  teaching  is  not  the  im- 
parting of  knowledge,  but  the  creating  of  an  appetite  for  it, 
inspiring  the  desire  to  learn  and  know.  We  can  establish  better 
schools  only  where  the  people  want  them  and  are  willing  to  take 
the  initiative.  The  extension  work  prepares  the  way.  The  ex- 
tension worker  must  be  an  inspirational  teacher.  His  pupils  come 
to  hear  him  not  because  they  want  the  credits  necessary  to  secure 
a  diploma,  but  because  they  want  to  learn  what  he  can  teach.  If 
he  does  not  interest  them,  they  do  not  come  back.  The  best 
teachers  in  the  state  are  those  of  the  Extension  Department  — 
the  most  unselfish,  the  most  enthusiastic,  the  most  devoted. 

But  the  work  being  done  by  the  Agricultural  College  in  its 
various  activities  —  important  as  this  work  is  —  is  not  the  work 
most  necessary  for  the  betterment  of  Iowa  agriculture  and  for 
the  betterment  of  the  farm  boy.  We  must  place  the  opportunity 
to  secure  a  knowledge  of  scientific  agriculture  within  reach  of 
the  average  boy  on  the  farm.  It  seems  foolish  to  permit  the 
boy  to  grow  up  in  ignorance  of  the  things  he  most  needs  to 
know  in  his  business,  and  then  try  to  teach  the  man  in  short 
courses  of  a  week  each  year.  We  should  in  some  way  build  a 
system  of  secondary  education  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  boy  who  will  be  a  farmer.  Ignorant  men  cannot  long  cul- 
tivate lands  worth  two  hundred  dollars  an  acre.  The  prosperity 
of  Iowa  depends  upon  the  intelligence  of  the  men  who  till  her 
farms.  The  resident  of  the  town  and  city  must,  for  his  own 
preservation,  aid  in  placing  the  right  sort  of  education  within 
reach  of  the  farm  boy. 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  323 

In  conclusion,  I  have  not  an  elaborately  worked-out  system 
to  propose,  but  I  suggest  certain  lines  along  which  we  should 
move : 

First,  we  cannot  supply  agricultural  education  by  legislative 
dictum.  Efforts  to  enact  laws  which  will  require  forthwith  the 
teaching  of  agriculture  in  all  schools  or  in  all  rural  schools  are 
not  well  directed. 

Second,  the  state  cannot,  as  in  other  countries,  control  en- 
tirely the  education  of  its  youth,  but  without  more  direct  aid  of 
the  state  than  has  been  given  in  the  past  we  shall  make  no 
general  progress.  This  aid  can  be  most  effectively  given  in  two 
ways,  (a)  By  training  teachers  competent  to  give  instruction  in 
agricultural  subjects.  This  should  be  begun  in  a  wholesale  way 
by  a  course  in  agriculture  at  the  State  Normal  School,  by  estab- 
lishing a  special  summer  school  for  rural  teachers  at  the  State 
Agricultural  College,  and  by  holding  special  short  courses  for 
teachers  under  the  direction  of  the  Extension  Department 
in  various  parts  of  the  state.  In  these  ways  we  can  make  a  be- 
ginning, but  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  we  must  provide 
training  schools  for  rural  teachers  which  will  really  fit  them 
for  rural  teaching,  (d)  By  giving  financial  aid  to  rural  schools 
which  provide  secondary  courses.  Our  people  can  most  easily 
be  induced  to  spend  their  own  money  when  by  so  doing  they 
can  get  some  "of  the  state's  money.  Only  in  this  way  can  the 
state  exercise  a  strong  influence  upon  the  character  of  the  rural 
schools. 

Third,  the  foundation  of  any  real  system  of  agricultural  ed- 
ucation is  the  rural  school.  As  a  state  we  have  spent  so  much 
time  and  money  in  fashioning  the  lily  work  on  the  pillars  and 
constructing  a  band  stand  on  the  roof,  that  we  have  given  almost 
no  attention  to  the  foundation.  The  first  step  toward  the  im- 
provement of  the  rural  school  will  be  in  the  direction  of  consoli- 
dation.    Efforts  to  introduce  agricultural  instruction  in  primary 


324       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

schools  have  not  been  successful.  The  most  that  can  be  done  in 
this  direction  is  to  give  primary  studies  an  agricultural  flavor  and 
interest  the  children  in  certain  forms  of  nature  work.  With  the 
consolidated  school,  however,  grades  can  be  established,  and  in 
the  higher  grades  excellent  work  in  agriculture  and  domestic 
science  can  be  carried  on  by  competent  teachers. 

Fourth,  we  must  have  a  system  of  secondary  agricultural 
schools  open  to  boys  and  girls  from  all  the  rural  schools  and 
planned  with  especial  reference  to  their  needs.  The  school  year 
should  not  exceed  six  months.  Our  ultimate  aim  should  be  to 
place  a  first-class  secondary  school  within  driving  distance  of 
every  farm,  and  these  schools  should,  so  far  as  possible,  be  in 
the  country  and  not  in  the  small  town,  to  the  end  that  around 
them  may  be  built  up  a  rural  social  life.  For  lack  of  teachers 
it  may  be  necessary  first  to  establish  a  secondary  school  in  each 
congressional  district,  which  can  later  be  developed  into  training 
schools  for  teachers ;  but  township  high  schools  should  be  the 
goal,  and  they  should  be  made  available  at  once  to  every  com- 
munity that  is  now  ready  for  them.  The  courses  of  study  at 
these  schools  should  be  planned  solely  with  the  purpose  of  giving 
the  farm  boy  and  girl  the  education  they  most  need  for  farm- 
ing, and  not  with  a  view  of  preparing  them  to  enter  the  agri- 
cultural or  any  other  college.  Ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  pupils 
who  attend  them  will  attend  no  other  school. 

Fifth,  the  Extension  Department  should  be  provided  with 
greatly  increased  funds,  that  it  may  be  enabled  to  extend  its  short- 
course  work  and  inaugurate  a  series  of  institutes  at  which  rural 
teachers  may  be  given  the  inspiration  which  they  so  much  need 
and  the  instruction  which  will  enable  them  to  introduce  nature 
work.  The  state  now  gives  this  department  $32,000  annually. 
Last  year  the  communities  in  which  it  worked  contributed  over 
$31,000.  Not  less  than  $100,000  per  year  should  be  made 
available  for  the  sole  use  of  the  Extension  Department. 


CONCERNING  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION     325 

Finally,  if  we  wish  to  improve  our  schools,  we  must  be  willing 
to  spend  our  money.  We  have  spent  freely  in  the  past  for  our 
higher  educational  institutions,  which  educate  the  few.  We  must 
spend  freely  in  the  future  for  grade  and  secondary  schools  to  ed- 
ucate the  many.  This  state  can  well  afford  to  support  both.  But 
if  to  redirect  our  schools  we  must  redirect  our  appropriations 
for  education,  then  let  it  be  done. 


INDEX 


Advisory  connnittees,  58,  153,  156 
Agassiz  School  experiment,  95 
Agricultural  College,  Iowa,  320 
Agricultural    colleges,    the    entrance 
requirements  and  the  farm  boy,  312 
Agricultural   education,  classified,   i, 
299  ;  address  on,  by  II.  C.  Wallace, 
300 ;  need  for,  301  ;  tardy  recogni- 
tion   of    farmers'    need    for,  312; 
in  foreign   countries,  314;   in    the 
United   States,   316;  in  secondary 
schools,  316;  state  aid  for,  323 
Albany  Vocational  Schools,  1 53 
American     Association     for     Labor 

Legislation,  267 
American  Federation  of  Labor,   26, 

32,  221 
Apprenticeship,  20,  224,  284 
Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  8,  77,  143 

Banking  school,  234 

Hauersfeld,  Albert  G.,  171 

Berkeley,  reprganization  of  school 
system,  84 

Beverly  Industrial  School,  part-time 
cooperative  work,  209 

Bloomfield,  Meyer,  235 

Bogan,  William  J.,  174 

Boston,  Agassiz  School  experiment, 
95;  Boys'  Trade  School,  153;  day 
continuation  schools,  230 ;  high 
schools,  10,  154;  High  School  of 
Commerce,  242 ;  prevocational 
work,  95 ;  Trade  School  for  Girls, 

153.  242 
Bridgeport,  State  Trade  School,  176 
Brooks,  Stratton  D.,  236 
Buffalo  vocational  schools,  153 
Bunker,  Frank  F.,  84 

Cabinetmaking,  course  in,  133 
Cambridge,  plan  of  promotion,  76 
Carpentry,  course  in,  140,  183 
Chart  of  vocational  schools,  65 


Chicago,  Albert  G.  Lane  Technical 
High  School,  155  ;  course  of  study, 
grades  six  to  eight,  120;  Manual 
Training  School,  11;  review 
schools,  83 

Child  labor,  267,  284 

Cincinnati,  part-time  cooperative 
work,  201  ;  continuation  schools, 
224  ;  vocational  guidance,  266 

Cleveland,  1 1  ;  continuation  schools, 
229  ;  Elementary  Industrial  School, 
102  ;  quarterly  plan,  82 ;  Techni- 
cal High  School,  102,  154,  155 

Columbus,  Georgia,  Secondary  Indus- 
trial School,  I  51 

Commercial  education  classified,  i 

Concord,  the  three-group  system,  86 

Connecticut,  legislation,, 268 

Continuation  schools,  69,  223  ;  Bos- 
ton, 230;  Cincinnati,  224;  Cleve- 
land, 229 

Courses  of  study,  106,  116,  117,  120, 
122,  131,  144,  162,  164,  180,  183, 
186,  199,  205,  217,  225,  285 

David  Ranken,  Jr.,  School  of  Mechan- 
ical Trades,  182 

Davis,  Jesse  B.,  246 

Delinquency,  juvenile,  46 

Democracy  in  education,  40 

Department  stores,  education  prepar- 
ing for  salesmanship  in,  231 

Differentiation,  needed  earlier  in 
school  system,  56,  60 ;  plan  of, 
64,  65 

Division  of  labor,  7 

Dressmaking,  course  in,  180  ; 

Dry-goods  school,  233 

Dyer,  Frank  B.,  224 

Early  choice  of  vocational  courses, 

70,  236,  239 
Economic  conditions,  7,  20 
Economy  in  school  organization,  92 


327 


328        EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 


Education,  in  early  adolescence,  85 ; 
elementary,  5,  55,  67,  85;  ideal  of, 
4;  industrial,  definition  of,  i,  9; 
renewed  demand  for  industrial,  17; 
subdivisions  of  industrial,  68  ;  sub- 
divisions of  liberal,  68  ;  revision  of 
ideals  of,  52  ;  secondary,  5,  86,  89, 
129,  151  ;  supplementary,  238 

Educators,  their  demand  for  indus- 
trial education,  37 ;  influence  of, 
43 ;  industrial  education  opposed 
by  conservative,  42 

Efficiency  as  a  measurement  of  school 
work,  171 

Electricity,  course  in,  135,  164 

Elementary  grades,  5,  55,  67,  85,  87  ; 
six-year  courses  in,  60,  85,  90 

Elimination  of  pupils  from  school,  54 

Elliott,  Edward  C,  17,  267 

Evanston,  Elementary  Technical 
School,  115 

Farm  boy  and  agricultural  education, 

312 
Farmer,  the  compensation    of,   300 ; 

need  of  education  of,  recognized, 

301  ;  the  scientific,  302 
Fitchburg,      part-time      cooperative 

work,     202 ;     prevocational     work 

in  Practical  Arts  School,   116 
Flexibility     of    school     organization 

needed,  56 

Gary  school  system,  91 
Geography-history,  course  in,  108 
Girls'     Trade      Education      League, 

Boston,  240 
Grand    Rapids,   vocational   guidance 

in    Central     High     School,     246 ; 

Public  Library  Bulletin,  253 
Gustafson,  Lewis,  182 

Hunter,  W.  B.,  202 

Ideals,  revision  of  educational,  52 

Immigration,  20 

Independent   industrial   school,    129, 

142 
Indiana,  legislation,  269 
Indianapolis,   semi-industrial    school, 

Industrial  conditions,  changed,  20 
Industrial   development,   mainspring 
of,  3 


Industrial  education,  definition  of,  i  ; 
demands  for,  by  the  manufacturers, 
20 ;  by  organized  labor,  26 ;  by 
educators,  37  ;  by  social  workers, 
44  ;  in  reform  schools,  46;  in  rela- 
tion to  the  labor  question,  28 ;  and 
the  labor  market,  28,  36 
Industrial    history,  courses  required 

in,  141 
Intermediate  grades,  60,  85 
Intermediate  industrial  school,  129 
International  Association  of  Machin- 
ists, 33 
I  nternational  Typographical  Union,34 
Iowa  Agricultural  College,  320 

Kansas,  legislation,  269 

Langley,  Elizabeth  E.,  18 

Legislation,  on  industrial  education, 
130,  177,  190,  212,  228,  229;  sum- 
mary of  state,  Connecticut,  268 ; 
Indiana,  269;  Kansas,  269;  Maine, 
270;  Massachusetts,  271;  Michi- 
gan, 275;  New  Jersey,  276;  New 
York,  277  ;  Ohio,  279 ;  Oklahoma, 
280;  Oregon,  281;  Pennsylvania, 
281  ;  Wisconsin,  282 

Legislation  relating  to  combined  agri- 
cultural education,  manual  training, 
and  household  science  and  art, 
Minnesota,  294;  North  Dakota,  296; 
Vermont,  298 

Los  Angeles,  Macy  Trade  School, 
121  ;  vocational  guidance,  123 

Lynch,  James  M.,  34 

McElroy,  James  F.,  17 

Machine-shop  work,  course  in,  199; 
part-time  course  in,  205,  217  ;  for 
apprentices,  225 

Maine,  legislation,  270 

Manual  training,  early  history,  10; 
purpose  and  value  of,  14;  relation 
to  educational  psychology,  1 3  ;  and 
industrial  education,  9,  267,  278, 
294 

Manufacturers,  attitude  of,  toward 
labor  unions  and  their  relation  to 
industrial  education,  24  ;  demand  of, 
for  industrial  education,  20 

Massachusetts,  Commission  on  Indus- 
trial Education,  17,  271  ;  legislation, 
271 


INDEX 


329 


Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy, II 
Menomonie,  plan  of  promotions,  82 
Michigan,  legislation,  275 
Millinery,  course  in,  180 
Milwaukee,  trade  schools,  176 
Minnesota,  legislation,  294 

National  Association  of  Manufac- 
turers, 28 

National  Child  I>abor  Committee,  267 

National  Education  Association,  17, 
102 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Industrial  Education,  7,  201,  267 

New  Jersey,  legislation,  276 

New  York,  legislation,  277 

New  York  City,  Manhattan  Trade 
School,  149;  vocational  guidance, 
264 ;  Vocational  School  for  Boys, 

153 

New  York  State  Education  Depart- 
ment, 60 

Newark,  113 

Newton  Independent  Industrial 
School,  142 

North  Bennet  Street  Industrial 
School,  48 

North  Dakota,  legislation,  296 

Ohio,  legislation,  279 

Oklahoma,  legislation,  280 

Oregon,  legislation,  281 

Organized  labor,  its  demand  for  in- 
dustrial education,  26 ;  and  general 
education,  36 

Parsons,  Frank,  235 

Part-time     cooperative     schools     or 

courses,  69,     201;    Beverly,    209; 

Fitchburg,  202 
Pennsylvania,  legislation,  281 
Perry,  Charles  F.,  176 
Petit,  Walter  W.,  1 1 5 
Philadelphia  Trades  School,  176 
Plumbing,  course  in,  137 
Portland,  plan  of  promotion,  78 
Portland  School  of  Trades,  176 
Practice  exercises,  the  place  of,  195 
Preparatory-salesmanship  school,  233 
Prevocational  work,  95;  Boston,  95; 

Cleveland,    102;     Evanston,    115; 

Fitchburg,  116;  Indianapolis,  113; 

Los  Angeles,   121;    Newark,   113; 


Seattle,  124;  Springfield,  114;  St. 

Paul,  114;  prolongs  school  life,  10 1, 

103,   109;  brief  summary  of  chief 

characteristics  of,  127 
Product  system,  the,  33,  36,  130,  135, 

142, 145,  150,  153,  170,  173,  190,  215 
Promotions,  plans  of  making,  76,  77, 

78,82 
Prosser,  Charles  A.,  268 

Reorganization  of  school  systems,  75, 

84,  86,  91 
Retardation,  prevention  of,  63 
Roberts,  William  E.,  iii 
Rochester  Shop  School,  130 
Rundlett,  L.  J.,  87 
Russell,  James  E.,  17,  40 

Safford,  Adelbert  L.,  209 

St.  Louis,  plan  of  promotion,  77 ; 
David  Ranken,  Jr.,  School  of  Me- 
chanical Trades  (private),  182 

St.  Paul,  special  industrial  schools,  1 14 

Schneider,  Herman,  201 

School  attendance,  compulsory,  of 
working  minors,  39,  229,  280,  293 

Seattle,  Elementary  Industrial  School, 
125 

Shaw,  Mrs.  Quincy  A.,  12,  235 

Shoe-and-leather  school,  233 

Shop  mathematics,  141 

Springfield  Vocational  School,  114 

State  aid  for  industrial  education,  268, 
269,  270,  271,  275,  276,  278,  288, 
290,  294,  296,  298 

Teachers,  qualifications  of,  in  early 
manual-training  work,  58 ;  in  the 
industrial  schools,  58,  105,  132,  181, 
220,  226 
Trade  order  work  in  schools,  1 50 
Trade  schools, 69, 175;  David  Ranken, 
Jr.,  School  of  Mechanical  Trades, 
182  ;  Milwaukee  Schools  of  Trades, 
176;  Worcester  Trade  School,  190 

United  Shoe  Machinery  Company, 
part-time  agreement,  214 

Vanderlip,  Frank  A.,  34 
Vermont,  legislation,  298 
Vocational  assistants,  242 
Vocational  Bureau,  Boston,  235,  239 
Vocational  counselors,  240,  252 


330       EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Vocational  education,  i  Wilson,  Lewis  A.,  130 

Vocational  guidance,  69,  123,  235;  in  Winslow,  Charles  H.,  26 

high  schools,  248  Wisconsin,  legislation,  282 

Women's  Municipal  League,  Boston, 
Wage  system,  6  240 

Wallace,  IL  C,  300  Woods,  Robert  A.,  50 

Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  11  Woolman,  Mary  Schenck,  149 

Wasted  years,  the,  76  Worcester  Trade  School,  176,  190 

Wealth,  unequal  distribution  of,  6  Work  and  education,  57,  62 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

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